ELAM
/ HALTAMTU / SUSIANA
Elam
was one of the longest-surviving kingdoms in history in one of
the oldest civilised areas in the world. It was founded by circa
2700 BC and was situated in south-western Iran, on the east bank
of the Tigris from modern Kuwait along the coast of the Persian
Gulf (approximately the modern region of Khuzestan and Ilam Province,
the latter of which inherits the former kingdom's name).
Culturally,
the kingdom achieved less than its advanced neighbours, and imported
much of what it needed, including writing from Sumer and architecture
from the later Babylon. From the few surviving records, it seems
the Elamite language bore no relation to any others; Semitic,
Sumerian or Indo-European, forming part of a group called Elamo-Dravidian
which reached into India. Elamite records are also extremely sparse
in recording local events, and large areas of their history are
almost totally unknown except through Sumerian records.
The
form of the kingdom's name, 'Elam' (meaning 'highland'), is Akkadian
(and through them, Hebrew), while in the original Elamite form
it was Haltamtu or Haltamti. It was also known in classical writings
as Susiana, from the city state of Susa which usually formed its
capital. The Old Testament claims Elam as a son of Shem, ancestor
of the Israelites, and founder figure of the kingdom bearing his
name. The Elamites, however, certainly were not Semites. Their
language is considered to be a linguistic isolate, not linked
to later-arriving language-speakers such as the Semites. The kingdom's
four major cities were Awan, Anshan, Simash, and Susa, the capital,
a hundred kilometres (seventy-five miles) east of the Tigris,
in which the rulers practised kingship by matrilineal descent,
being referred to as 'son of a sister'.
from
7000 BC :
The
first traces of civilisation appear in the Elamite region. Susa
shows traces of early settlement.
c.4000
BC :
Susa
emerges as an important regional centre.
c.3200
- 2700 BC :
The
Proto-Elamite Period witnesses the development of a semi-pictographic
writing system. Susa begins to be influenced by the cultures of
the Iranian Plateau to the east, and dominates the lowlands to
the west of the Zagros Mountains. Approximately 400 kms to the
south, Anshan, in the modern province of Fars, becomes prominent
and expands in size, dominating the highlands of the southern
mountain range.
Old
Elamite Period :
The
Old Elamite Period marks the beginnings of the historical era
in Elam and relations with the flourishing Sumerian city states.
Three dynasties of kings ruled, with the last of them forming
a short-lived empire. It seems that at various times, Anshan and
Susa were ruled as separate kingdoms, and were perhaps only briefly
united within one state. However, Sumerian writings start referring
to them as the land of Elam, suggesting an element of unity, perhaps
as a loose coalition of city states.
c.2600
BC :
According
to the Sumerian king list, the ruler of the city state of Kish
subdues Elam.
Avan
/ Awan Kings :
The
founding of the Awan dynasty of Elamite rulers ended the hazy
Proto-Elamite Period, although precise details of their rule are
extremely fragmentary. Awan was one of Elam's four major cities,
located to the immediate north-west of Susa, and the first three
kings are mentioned on the Sumerian king list, in the fourth set
of post-diluvian entries. The first foreign rulers of Sumer, they
briefly held dominance there, having gained the kingship from
Lagash or more probably Umma (although these cities are missing
from the list, and the dating is misaligned).
FeatureAccording
to the king list, a total of three kings of Awan ruled Sumer for
356 years, once (one dynasty) in Awan. This is the fourth set
of entries on the list comprising kings 40-42, but the text was
destroyed in this section. Here, List 1 is primarily used, backed
up by List 2.
c.2550
- ? BC :
(Name
Unknown) : Ruled for ? years, holding
dominance in Sumer.
(Name
Unknown) : Ruled for ? years, holding
dominance in Sumer.
(Name
Unknown) : Ruled for ?/36
years, holding dominance in Sumer.
Awan
is defeated and the Sumerian kingship passes to Kish. It could
be possible that the following three kings are the same as the
three unnamed kings who had dominated Sumer. Their dates are much
closer to fitting in with those in which the kings of Awan could
have seized power from Lagash or Umma and ruled for about forty
years.
fl
c.2450 BC :
Peli
Some
lists place three kings of Ebla after Peli as Awan kings. However,
the names seem to be Syrian ones: Igrish-Halam, Irkab-Damu, and
Ar-Ennum.
c.2450
BC :
Eannatum
of Lagash extends his power to parts of Elam and the Persian Gulf,
and the succeeding rulers of Lagash engage in contests against
Elam for the next century or so.
c.2430
BC :
Enshakushanna
of Uruk throws the Elamites out of Awan.
Tata
/ Taar / Tari
Ukku-Takhesh
Khishur
/ Hishur
Shushun-Tarana
Napil-Khush
Kikku-Sive-Temti
fl
c.2350/2325 BC :
Lukh-Ishshan
c.2350
BC :
Elam
is reputedly conquered by Alusarsid of Akkad. At the same time
a kingdom or confederation known as Marhashi is emerging to the
east, on the Iranian Plateau.
fl
c.2320 BC :
Khishep-Ratep
/ Hishep-rasher : Vassal of Akkad?
Eshpum
: Ruled? Vassal of Akkad?
Ilishmani
: Ruled? Vassal of Akkad?
Epirmupi
: Ruled? Vassal of Akkad?
c.2300
- 2280 BC :
Khelu
/ Helu : Vassal of Akkad?
c.2280
- 2250 BC :
Khita
/ Hita : Vassal of Akkad?
c.2278
- 2270 BC :
After
an attempted rebellion, Elam is re-conquered by Rimush of Akkad,
and real Elamite history can be traced from this point. The state
of Marhashi is now a cohesive entity, bordering Anshan to the
east.
Shimpishuk
: Ruled? Vassal king?
c.2240?
BC :
Both
Marhashi and Kutik-Inshushinnak declares independence from Akkad
(although perhaps not immediately as it seems they are re-conquered
for a time), eventually throwing off Akkadian language influences.
The ruler conquers Susa and Anshan, forming a centralised and
unified kingdom.
c.2240
- 2220 BC :
Kutik
(or Puzur)-Inshushinnak : Governor and
general of Susa & king of Awan.
Tazitta
I
c.2210
BC :
Marhashi
overruns Elam for a time, and unites eastern efforts in fighting
against the Akkadian empire. A battle is fought near Akshak, at
the confluence of the Diyala and Tigris rivers between the two
states.
c.2193
BC :
Elam
is overthrown by the Gutians as they sweep through southern Mesopotamia
from the Zagros Highlands, also destroying the Akkadian empire.
The new Simash dynasty eventually comes to power during a period
of instability.
Eparti
fl
before 2120 BC :
Tazitta
II
Simash
Kings :
Although
records are characteristically sparse, it seems that the invading
Gutians caused the downfall of the former ruling dynasty in Elam,
and their replacements, the Shimashki, faced a period of alternate
diplomacy and attack from the Gutians and Sumerians. Some names
may not be in the same order on all lists.
?
?
c.2050
BC :
Elam loses its capital at Susa when it is conquered by Shulgi
of Ur.
fl
c.2030? BC : Gir-Namme
fl
c.2010? BC : Enpi-Luhhan
fl
c.2007? BC : Khutran-Temtt
fl
c.2004 BC : Kindattu
c.2004
BC :
Kindattu,
together with the people of Susa, sacks Ur and lead its king into
captivity. ending the third dynasty. With this threat removed,
Elam becomes a powerful kingdom, although it is pushed out of
southern Mesopotamia six years later by the Amorite city state
of Isin. However, Elam appears to hold on to Kish.
Indattu-Inshushinnak
I
Tan-Rukhurater
Indattu-Inshushinnak
II
Indattu-Napir
Indattu-Tempt
Eparti
Kings :
Under
the stronger Eparti kings the Elamites swiftly rose to become
a regional power, being contemporaneous with the Old Babylonian
empire, and threatening it and the other Amorite city states,
such as Isin, with conquest. The Eparti were also called 'of the
sukkalmahs' due to the title which their kings bore. In some lists
the Eparti are included as Simash/Shimashki kings. Details on
rulers is extremely sparse, and some names may not even be in
the correct order.
Recent
excavations (up to 2015) that have been led by archaeologist Behzad
Mofidi-Nasrabadi of Mainz University at the site of Haft Tepe
or Tappeh (approximately twenty kilometres from Susa) have uncovered
a workshop with an attached clay tablet archive that dates to
this period in which the city is a prominent centre in the Elamite
empire. The workshop records the expansion of commerce, arts,
and crafts. Physical evidence of this prosperity includes lavish
grave goods that have been found in the tomb of a female official,
and a well-crafted female figurine.
c.1970
BC :
Eparti
I
Eparti
II
fl
bef. c.1850 BC :
Eparti
III
c.1835
BC :
Kudur-mabug
: King of an Elamite state north of Susa? In
Zagros Mountains?
c.1835
BC :
Kudur-mabug,
apparent king of an otherwise unknown Elamite state to the north,
manages to install his son, Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa.
Shilkhakha
fl
after c.1830 BC :
Attakhushu
Tetep-mada?
fl
c.1792 BC :
Sirukdukh
c.1772
- 1763 BC :
Shimut-Wartash
c.1770?
- 1765 BC :
Elam apparently takes control of the city of Apum after the fall
of the kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia. Elamite rule is eventually
thrown out when the city of Andarig takes control there.
c.1763
BC :
Following
an attempted invasion the previous year (during which Ekallatum
is conquered by Elam), the Elamites are defeated in southern Mesopotamia
by Hammurabi's Babylonian empire, and the kingdom begins a period
of vassalage to Babylon, still with their own kings, although
the region's previous political unity is probably shattered.
c.1763
- 1745 BC :
Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
: For a time the most powerful ruler in the area.
c.1750
BC :
Kudur
Lagamar : King Chedorlaomer of the Bible, but existence
is unconfirmed.
c.1745
- 1730 BC :
Kuduzulush
I
c.1732
BC :
Elam loses control of Kish to the kings of Sealand.
c.1730
- 1700 BC :
Kutir-Nahhunte
I
c.1700
- 1698 BC : Lila-Ir-Tash
c.1698
- 1690 BC :
Temti-Agun
I
c.1690
- 1655 BC :
Tan-Uli
c.1655
- 1650 BC :
Temti-Khalki
c.1650
- 1635 BC :
Kuk-Nashur
II
c.1635
- 1625 BC :
Kutir-Shilkhakha
I
c.1625
- 1605 BC :
Temti-Raptash
c.1605
- 1600 BC :
Kuduzulush
II
c.1600
- 1580 BC :
Tata
c.1595
BC :
It
appears that at the same time as they take control in Babylon,
the Kassites are able to devastate Elam.
c.1580
- 1570 BC :
Atta-Merra-Khalki
c.1570
- 1545 BC :
Pala-Ishshan
c.1545
- 1520 BC :
Kuk-Kirwash
c.1520
- 1505 BC :
Kuk-Nahhunte
: Plundered the temples of Amorite Akkad.
c.1505
- ? BC :
Kutir-Nahhunte
II
c.1500
BC :
Perhaps
due in part (at least) to the devastation of Elam of a century
before, the kingdom has entered a slow decline into obscurity.
Middle
Elamite Period :
The
Middle Period began as a poorly recorded period thanks to the
Kassite rule of Babylonia, but this was followed by a slow ascendancy
into an empire under three dynasties of kings from the city of
Anshan. Although Elam was a late arrival on the international
scene, and had limited influence outside Babylonia and Assyria,
it cannot be ignored as a significant force. The lack of international
correspondence relating to it probably comes from its rise after
the period of the Egyptian Armana archive and its distance from
Syria. To be able date any of these rulers, events that are noted
in Babylonia have to be relied upon.
The
Anshanites dynasties began with the Susa-based Kidinuids, who
oversaw the 'Elamisation' of Susa, while continuing to use the
Akkadian language on their inscriptions. The kings of this period
were titled 'king of Anshan and Susa', indicating a renewed political
unity within Elam, or at least a claim to it. This is the most
obscure of the three Middle Period dynasties.
c.1500
- ? BC :
Kidinu
Inshushinak-sunkir-nappipir
: Some lists place him last.
Tan-Ruhurater
II
Shalla
?
c.1400 BC :
Tepti-ahar
The
best-attested act of this period is Tepti-ahar's building of a
new settlement, called Kabnak (modern Haft Tepe or Tappeh), approximately
twenty kilometres from Susa. These kings leave no mark outside
of the western lowlands. However, with Elam in decline, Kabnak
(Haft Tepe) also declines. Some of its temples and palaces are
abandoned, and their materials are reused to build simple dwellings.
The remains of several hundred massacre victims of this period
are found by archaeologists in 2014-2015, piled on top of one
another behind one of the city's internal walls.
![](Elam_Kabnak01_full.jpg)
Several
hundred people were massacred in this period and their bodies
piled into a mass grave behind one of Kabnak's city walls, for
archaeologists to find in 2014-2015, although the circumstances
surrounding the massacre are unknown
Igehalkid
Kings :
Ige-Halki
ruled a newly independent, and certainly reunified Elam, with the
lowlands of Susa in the west once more united with the highlands
of Anshan in the east. Elamite language continued to increase in
importance during this period. However, under the rule of the Igehalkids
the kingdom seems to have remained fairly inactive. Ten rulers are
known, but there may be more. The succession of kings was unusual
for the period in that the throne moved back and forth between the
descendants of two sons of Ige-Halki.
c.1350
- 1330 BC :
Ige-Halki
: Or from c.1400 BC.
c.1330
- 1310 BC :
Pakhir-Ishshan
: Son.
c.1320
BC :
Elam
is temporarily occupied by the Kassites.
c.1310
- 1300 BC :
Attar-Kittakh
: Brother.
c.1300
- 1275 BC :
Khuman-Numena
: Son.
c.1275
- 1240 BC :
Untash-Naprisha
: Son.
The
largest project undertaken by the dynasty is the construction of
a new city 40km from Susa. The city of Al-Untash-Naprisha is named
after its founder, and is devoted to Napirisha, the great god of
Elam, and Inshushinak, the patron deity of Susa. After the king's
death, his city assumed secondary status to Susa.
c.1240
- ? BC :
Unpatar-Naprisha
: Descendant of Pakhir-Ishshan.
Kiddin-Khutran
I : Brother.
Kiddin-Khutran
II : Descendant of Attar-Kittakh.
?
- c.1220 BC :
Napirisha-Untash
: Son.
c.1220
- 1200 BC :
Kiddin-Khutran
III : Son?
c.1230
BC :
Kiddin-Khutran
enters Babylonia twice to attack Assyria's puppet rulers there.
On the first campaign, Nippur is taken, while on the second Isin
is attacked. When Kiddin-Khutran dies there is a change of dynasty
in Elam.
Shutrukid
Kings :
It
is not known how this new dynasty came to replace the previous one.
Under the Shutrukids the kingdom again became a powerful force within
Mesopotamia, even being able to reach out and conquer Babylon. Unfortunately,
that expansion brought about the destruction of Elam and four hundred
years of direct Babylonian rule. Dates are extremely uncertain,
and do not entirely align with events in Babylonia.
c.1210
- 1190 BC :
Khallutush-In-Shushinak
c.1190
- 1160 BC :
Shutruk-Nahhunte
I : Rebuilt the kingdom.
c.1158
- 1155 BC :
Once
again a rising power, Shutruk-Nahhunte marries the eldest daughter
of the Babylonian king Melishipak, and appears to claim Babylonia
as his own. He is able to push the Kassites out, forming a short-lived
empire that encompasses Mesopotamia, with his eldest son on the
Babylonian throne.
c.1160
- 1155 BC :
Kutir-Nahhunte
III : Son. King of Babylon (1158-1155).
c.1155
- 1125 BC :
Shilkhak-In-Shushinak
: Brother.
c.1155
- 1135 BC :
While
his brother is later accused by Babylonian sources of having plundered
the country, Shilkhak-In-Shushinak claims to raid Babylonia and
Assyria repeatedly, and to control the area east of the Tigris as
far north as Nuzi, until being expelled by the new Isin kings of
Babylonia.
c.1125
- 1115 BC :
Khutelutush-In-Shushinak
: Result of probable relationship between his father
& sister.
c.
1115 - ? BC :
Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar
: Brother.
Neo-Elamite
Period :
The Middle Period ended with the sacking of Elam and further occupation
by Babylonia. Elam never quite recovered from this and the neo-Elamite
Period was one of Iranian and Syrian influence, and especially Assyrian,
and obscurity for the Elamites themselves.
(Additional
information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983).)
c.1120
- 760 BC :
Neo-Elamite Period I sees Elam's capital, Susa, sacked by the Babylonian
king, Nebuchadrezzar. The kingdom is badly damaged, and is absorbed
into Babylonia.
c.843
BC :
The
early Persians or, perhaps more accurately, the Parsua, receive
their first mention in history. The Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III,
records their existence on the Black Obelisk, which covers his campaign
of about this year. Their position is not precisely fixed but 'Pasua'
seems to lay in what is now Iranian Kurdistan (immediately east
of Kurdistan in northern Iraq), far to the north of Persis and the
heart of Persian settlement.
It may be the case that there are two (or perhaps even three) distinctive
groups of 'Parsua' at this time, primarily in the Zagros Mountains
to the east and south-east of the Assyrians. This is apart from
a larger body which is settling the land immediately to the east
of Elam (and focussed around the city of Persis). Those groups in
the Zagros seem to drop out of the historical record, perhaps pushed
south by the greater numbers of the Medes or absorbed by them.
c.760
- 644 BC :
Neo-Elamite
Period II sees Elam, under its Babylonian masters, controlling the
Persians to the east of Elam itself, who had begun to migrate into
the area from around 1000 BC. Elam and Babylonia often fight side
by side against external threats, especially that of the Assyrians.
Late
Elam / Susiana :
A
new Elamite state emerged from the centuries of Babylonian rule,
but it was not the powerful state of old. Records of the Elamite
rulers of this period are very poor, with only five kings recorded
from native sources, while sources from Mesopotamia record fifteen.
However, although the country was politically unstable and was under
constant threat of attack by Assyria, the Elamites still retained
control of the Persians to their south, whom they heavily influenced
culturally. They also occasionally threatened Assyria, and managed
to acquire wealth that made Elam the envy of its neighbours.
Elam
probably only controlled the plain of Khuzestan on the western flank
of the Zagros Mountains. The highlands of Anshan were home to the
Persians, and groups that had only recently entered the area inhabited
the Zagros Mountains further north. These formed various states
that were at first very loose coalitions of peoples, with names
known to us only from Assyrian sources. These mention the Medes,
Mannaeans, Persians, and others, originally with large numbers of
kings, later as consolidated states. All of them contributed towards
a more uncertain political sphere to the east of Mesopotamia.
(Additional
information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983).)
c.760
- 742 BC :
Khumbantahrah
742
- 717 BC :
Khumbanigash
I / Humban-nikash
720
BC :
Assyrian
king Sargon attempts to attack Elam but is defeated by the Elamites
and Babylonians near Der. It seems likely that another attack is
mounted in 713 BC, as Sargon is surprised by a rebellion in Tabal
while his attention is focussed on Elamite lands.
![](Map_Bactria-&-India-700BC_full.jpg)
Following
the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations
and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC,
Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions
- Tur (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming
the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering
India (green)
717
- 699 BC :
Shuttir-Nakhkhunte
/ Shutruk-Nahhunte II : Murdered by his
brother.
699
- 693 BC :
Khallushu
: Brother. Assassinated.
694
BC :
Khallushu captures
Babylonia and the king.
693
- 692 BC :
Kutir-Nakhkhunte
/ Kudur-Nahunte : Seized the throne. Abdicated
in favour of his replacement.
692
- 689 BC :
Khumma-Menanu
/ Humban-nimena
692/691
BC :
The
king leads a coalition of Elamite and Iranian states against Assyrian
king Sennacherib at the Battle of Halule on the Tigris. With him
is Babylon, the minor kingdom of Ellipi (roughly located in Luristan,
to the immediate west of Elam), and the kingdom of Anshan which
seems able to be able to call on the Parsua or Parsuash (Persians).
Anshan has often - but not always - been part of Elam itself, but
it may be ruled by a subsidiary line at this time. The location
of the battle suggests a march by the allies towards the heart of
Assyrian-dominated territory. The outcome is not decisive, and does
not prevent Sennacherib from devastating Babylon, although it does
protect Elam itself.
689
- 681 BC :
Khumma-Khaldash
I
681
- 676 BC :
Khumma-Khaldash
II
680
- 653 BC :
Shilhak-In-Shushinak
: Joint ruler (680-676 BC).
675
BC :
The
Persian tribes on Elam's eastern border begin to unite under the
(legendary) founder of their new dynasty. Many scholars of Persian
history now believe that Achaemenes is a fictional common ancestor
who is used to legitimise the rule of Darius I from 521 BC, but
the Persians do indeed unite and become increasingly dominant during
the course of the next century.
676
- 664 BC :
Urtaku
: Joint ruler.
664
- 653 BC :
Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak
: Joint ruler. Killed in battle.
653
BC :
Ashurbanipal of Assyria invades Elam and fights a battle at the
River Ulai, which runs near Susa. During the battle the king, Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak,
is killed and decapitated.
653
- 648 BC :
Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak
653
- 651 BC :
Khumbanigash
II : Joint ruler.
651
- 649 BC :
Tammaritu
: Joint ruler.
649
- 647 BC :
Indabigash
: Joint ruler (649-648 BC).
647
- 644 BC :
Khumma-Khaldash
III
644
BC :
Neo-Elamite
Period III begins as Elam is devastated by Assyria, although not
as badly as had previously been believed from inscriptions left
by the Assyrians themselves. The populace suffers greatly, but they
are not massacred. Instead, the fragmented and weakened Elamites
rule an increasingly shrinking domain which eventually passes into
the hands of the Persians. They gain Anshan (Anzan) even while the
last seventh century Elamite kings are still claiming it within
their title, possibly as a result of the Assyrian attack on the
Elamites in this year as it ties in with Achaemenes of the Persians
being acclaimed as the king of Anshan.
644
- ? BC :
Shuttir-Nakhkhunte
: Son. 'King of Anzan and of Susa'.
Khallutush-In-Shushinak
: 'King of Anzan and of Susa'.
c.620
BC :
The
Medians (possibly) take control of Persia from the weakening Assyrians
who themselves had only recently taken control of the region from
Elam. According to Herodotus, Media governs all of the tribes of
the Iranian steppe. This sudden empire may well include territory
to the east which covers Hyrcania, Parthia, Drangiana, and Carmania.
Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak
: 'King of Anzan and of Susa'.
c.580
BC :
Shuttir-Nakhkhunte
: Son of Indada. Petty king.
Khumma-Menanu
: 'King'.
559
BC :
Before
this date, Cambyses of the Persians has married Mandane, (a) daughter
of Astyages of Media. Their son is Cyrus, later known as 'the Great',
while Mandane is also the niece of Amyhia, queen of Babylon. In
this year Cyrus moves his capital to Susa, clearly taking control
from the fading Elamite kings who now claim no title at all, and
are probably pleased simply to be able to claim a kingship. Cyrus
soon ends the vassalage of the Persians by defeating the Medes and
then he swiftly creates an empire.
Shilhak-In-Shushinak
II : 'King'. Lost Susa?
?
- 539 BC :
Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak
: Had no title at all.
539
BC :
The
Persians assume full control of Elam as part of their increasing
dominance of the region, leading to the Elamites disappearing from
history as a recognisable people and culture. The Persians preserve
Elamite culture for at least the period of their first dynasty,
although what seems to be a semi-independent fragment of Elamite
civilisation does seem to persist for several centuries in the form
of Elymais. On the Behistun inscription of Darius the Great in the
later years of the sixth century BC the land of Elam is known as
Uwja or Ūja. This is part of the satrapy of Persis, while Susa
forms the capital of its own eponymous satrapy.
Persian
Satraps of Susa (Susiana) :
Incorporating the Satraps of Elymais (of the Uxians / Cissians)
It
may have been as early as 644 BC when the Parsua gained dominance
in the eastern regions of Elam. The ancient kingdom was devastated
by Assyria, although not as badly as had previously been believed
from inscriptions left by the Assyrians themselves. The populace
suffered greatly, but they were not massacred. Instead, the fragmented
and weakened Elamites ruled an increasingly shrinking domain which
eventually passed into the hands of the Parsua. They gain Anshan
(Anzan) even while the last seventh century Elamite kings were still
claiming it within their title. The semi-mythical Achaemenes was
acclaimed as the king of Anshan (although perhaps retrospectively,
from a century later).
For
a while, the Parsua were dominated by their fellow Indo-Iranians,
the Medes. Then, in 559 BC, Cyrus I, king of Anshan, staged an uprising
which ended Median control and exchanged it for Persian control.
One of his very first acts after that was to move the Persian capital
to the former Elamite capital, Susa. In the later Behistun inscription
of Darius the Great this land is known as Uwja or Uja, and was part
of the 'Great Satrapy Parsa/Persis', or rather Persis and Uja were
two 'main satrapies' which were governed together and from the same
place.
This
was the oldest and senior-most of the satrapies or provinces of
the empire, although its precise boundaries are somewhat anomalous.
Confusingly perhaps it didn't include the former Elamite capital
of Susa which had its own satrapy (shown here, while the satraps
of Parsa/Persis are shown in the main Achaemenid page), even though
the same person may have commanded in all three to begin with (see
Bagapana around 500 BC). Susa seems to have been not only the imperial
capital for a time, but also a provincial one (see Arrian of Nicomedia).
Little is known about the main satraps for this region while the
main satrapy Uja was divided into two regions: the plain around
Susa and the Zagros Mountains. The central minor satrapy of Susa
seems to have coincided essentially with the modern province of
Khuzestan which sits at the top of the Persian Gulf and borders
Kuwait to the west.
By
the middle of the fourth century BC there existed near Persis a
minor satrapy called Elymais (or Elamais). Containing the territory
of the 'Uxians of the Mountains', this region was autonomous, or
a 'free' territory, as the sources like to put it. Instead of having
a governing satrap it was subordinate to an indigenous 'prefect'.
Despite the acknowledgement of autonomy the inhabitants were still
obliged to perform military service for the satrap of the superior
main satrapy of Persis. It does seem to suggest, however, that the
Achaemenids were beginning to lose their grip on power if an autonomous
tribal area was able to exist in their own back yard. Elymais survived
right up to the third century AD as a semi-independent component
of the later Parthian empire, and was generally hostile to the Achaemenids.
Their worship suggests that they were not Indo-Iranian relatives
of the Persians, making it far more likely that they were a remnant
of the ancient Elamites, who themselves were rarely unified beyond
the need to deal with external states. The name is also highly redolent
of an Elamite continuation state.
Index
of Central Asian TribesThe Uxians (or Cissians) were first noted
around the time at which Assyrian power was declining (seventh century
BC). They were a Persian tribe (see index for more tribes) whose
people are referred to in later sources by these names (Diodorus,
for instance), noted as having migrated to the mountain region within
the vicinity of Susa. The Achaemenids considered this tribe to be
representative of the area in much the same way as their Persis
was for the Parsua people from whom the Achaemenids descended, so
they named the province after them.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Bibliotheca Historica,
Diodorus Siculus, from Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian of Nicomedia,
from A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire, M A Dandamaev,
from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus
(Penguin, 1996), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000
to 500 BC, John Haywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient
Near East, c.3000-330 BC (Volumes I & II), Amélie Kuhrt
(Routledge, 2000), from A History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323
BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), and
from External Links: Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius
Trogus, Marcus Junianus Justinus (Translated, with notes, by Rev
John Selby Watson, London 1853), and The Achaemenid Court, Bruno
Jacobs & Robert Rollinger (PDF), and Encyclopaedia Iranica,
and Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Richard T Hallock (Oriental
Institute Publications at the University of Chicago, available for
download as a PDF).)
559
- ? BC :
Sybares
/ Soebaris? : First satrap? Also in Persis.
The
Persian Sybares had been released from Median slavery by Cyrus the
Great and subsequently becomes the king's companion in his undertakings.
Now, at the beginning of the reign of Cyrus, he appoints Sybares
to the position of chancellor of Persis. Given that Bagapāna
around 500 BC seems to hold this same position while also governing
Susa, it seems likely that Sybares fulfils the same role.
![](Persia_CyrusGreat_01_full.jpg)
Cyrus
the Great freed the Indo-Iranian Parsua people from Median domination
to establish a nation that is recognisable to this day, and an empire
that provided the basis for the vast territories that were later
ruled by Alexander the Great
539
BC :
Nabonidus
angers the Babylonians by trying to reintroduce Assyrian culture,
including placing the moon god Sin above Babylon's Marduk in terms
of importance. Perhaps because of that, resistance to Cyrus the
Great of Persia, when he enters Babylonia from the east, is limited
to just one major battle, near the confluence of the Diyala and
Tigris rivers. On 12/13 October (sources vary), Babylon is occupied
by Cyrus, which also gains him the remainder of Elam's territory
plus Athura (Ashur, heartland of the former Assyrian empire).
fl
c.500 BC :
Bagapāna
: Satrap? Also in Persis? Otherwise unknown.
c.500
BC :
A certain Bagapāna is mentioned is named in the Persepolis
Fortification Tablets (forming just about the largest coherent
body of material available today on Persian administration). This
individual has also been noted as a potential chancellor of Persis.
At the same time, Darius oversees the completion of a canal connecting
the Nile to the Red Sea.
521
BC :
Immediately
after Darius secures the throne from the usurper 'Gaumata' who uses
the name Smerdis, he faces several rebellions. The first, in Babirush,
is defeated in battle. The Cyaxarid, Fravarti, tries to restore
Media to independence and is defeated and executed. Extensions of
the insurrection in Armina, Parthawa, and Verkāna are also crushed.
Darius mentions that the revolt arises in Asagarta, which is the
land of the Sargatians within the satrapy of Zranka.
340s BC :
By this time there exists near Persis a minor satrapy called Elymais.
Containing the territory of the 'Uxians of the Mountains',
it is autonomous, or a 'free' territory, as the sources like to
put it. Instead it is subordinate to an indigenous 'prefect'. Despite
the acknowledgement of autonomy the inhabitants are obliged to perform
military service for the satrap of the superior main satrapy of
Persis. It does seem to suggest, however, that the Achaemenids are
beginning to lose their grip on power if an autonomous tribal area
can exist in their own back yard.
![](Elam_ElymaisOrodesCoin01_full.jpg)
Initially
appearing in history as a semi-independent state that was only under
nominal Persian control, even though it still provided troops to
the empire, Elymais by the end of the first century BC was producing
its own coins stamped with the name of its king (the example shown
here was issued by King Orodes I-III (the specific king is uncertain),
circa AD 50-200)
? -
331 BC :
Abulites
: Satrap. Retained by Alexander the Great.
331
BC :
At
the Battle of Gaugamela, Oxathres, son of Abulites, commands the
Uxians and Susians during the battle. His superior, 'Chancellor'
Ariobarzanes of Persis, leads some Persian units, perhaps two thousand
men in total, with the concentration of these being in the centre.
They take heavy casualties, but Ariobarzanes is able to leave the
battlefield with his king.
Darius flees eastwards and the defence of each province is left
to its satrap. Oxathres returns to Susa to stand alongside his father.
Alexander seizes Babirush and Susa (although Abulites actually welcomes
Alexander into Susa) and, having gathered intelligence on Persis,
he sets out with a picked force of 17,000 men for Persepolis.
Seeing that the Macedonian army is unbeatable on the plain, Ariobarzanes
blocks its path on the way to Persepolis in a gorge known as the
Persian Gate or Susian Gate in order to deprive it of battle formation,
diverse arms, and superior numbers. The first Greek attack is a
failure, so Alexander handsomely bribes some prisoners to lead him
around the defensive line and attack the Persian camp from behind.
The Persians are defeated in ferocious hand-to-hand fighting and
Ariobarzanes falls. The Uxians are similarly dispatched at the Battle
of the Uxian Defile. Persian Susa has fallen.
![](Persia_PersianGates01_full.jpg)
The
Persian Gate presented a formidable obstacle for any large army
attempting to force its way through (as it would do even today)
so in 331 BC Alexander was forced to go around and attack the defenders
from behind
Argead
Dynasty in Susiana (Elam) :
Incorporating the Satraps of Paraetacene
The
Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who reached
their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his two successors
before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic sections. Following
Alexander's conquest of central and eastern Persia in 331-328 BC,
the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's death in 323
BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's
successors held no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals
who really held control of Alexander's empire. Following that latter
period and during the course of several wars, the territory of the
ancient kingdom of Elam was left in the hands of the Seleucid empire
from 301 BC.
As
elsewhere in the captured empire, Alexander retained most of the
previous system of administration, and this included the use of
satraps to govern the regions. The Greek focus in Elam was on their
capital at Susa - its Persian name, better known as Shushan or Susiana
in Greek writings. This generally formed the capital of the province
of Susiana and had once formed one of the key regions of Elam itself.
During subsequent Macedonian rule its importance lessened greatly,
with the focus of power being in Babylon or the new Seleucid capital
of Seleucia-on-Tigris. Susa lies at the foot of the southern end
of the Zagros Mountains, close to the modern town of Shush and also
close to the border with south-eastern Iraq.
The
minor satrapy of Paraetacene was situated, according to Strabo,
between Persia and the Median core region. The province is also
said by Strabo to adjoin Susiana in the (south-)west, with the desert
extending to Carmania in the south-east, and Parthia lying to the
north-east. Arrian's report that Alexander arrived in the territory
of the Paraetaceneans soon after his departure from Persepolis for
Ecbatana fixes the position of the province approximately in the
area of the modern province of Isfahan. Herodotus counted the Paraetaceni
as a tribe of the Medians.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Alexander the
Great: A Reader, Ian Worthington (Routledge, 2012), from Epitome
of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Volume II, Marcus Junianus
Justinus, from the Cyropaedia & Anabasis, Xenophon of Athens,
from Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great, Joseph Roisman (BRILL,
2002), and from External Links: Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology,
Jan Tavernier (PDF), and A Brief History of Ancient Greece (Oxford
University Press), and A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography
and Mythology, William Smith (Ed, 1867), and Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
331
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : King of Macedonia. Conquered
Persia.
323
- 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander
the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander the
Great and Roxana.
331
- 325 BC :
Abulites
: Satrap of Susiana. Former Achaemenid satrap. Executed.
330
- 325 BC :
Oxathres
/ Oxoathres / Oxyathres : Son. Satrap of Paraetacene. Executed.
331
BC :
Following
the defeat of Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela, Abulites opens
the gates of Susa to Alexander the Great, sending his son, Oxathres,
ahead as the messenger of good news. Abulites is retained in his
post as satrap of Susiana (the Greek form of the name), and Oxathres
is attached to him as satrap of the junior post Paraetacene.
![](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
325
BC :
When Alexander returns from his long expedition into India, towards
the latter end of 325 BC, eight satraps and generals are removed
from office and executed. Most are guilty of assuming that Alexander
would not survive and had begun to exploit his empire for their
own personal benefit. To prevent similar problems in the future,
all satraps are ordered to disband their mercenary forces. Abulites
and Oxathres are amongst the dead, apparently killed by Alexander
in person using a javelin.
324
BC :
Alexander
holds an event which has become known as the 'Susa Weddings'. His
intention is to unite Persians and Macedonians symbolically by carrying
out a mass joining of prospective couples in a single ceremony.
He takes a Persian wife himself and arranges many Persian wives
for his officers. Persian custom allows multiple wives, so the fact
that Alexander is already married to Roxana of Sogdiana is not a
hindrance. His second wife is Stateira II, eldest daughter of the
late Darius. Alexander may also have taken a third wife at the same
ceremony, Parysatis, youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III (the late
great-uncle of Darius and a former Persian king in his own right).
Following Alexander's premature death in 323 BC, Roxana murders
Stateira, and possibly her sister, primarily to remove competition
in the succession. All of the surviving Macedonian officers also
divorce their own Persian wives, ending any pretence at Macedonian-Persian
unity. At the same time, Susiana is presumably governed by Archon,
who holds Babylonia in the name of the titular successors to the
empire.
323
- 321 BC :
Archon
of Pella : Greek satrap of Babylonia & Susiana. Killed
in battle.
320
BC :
A
new agreement with Antipater makes him regent of the Greek empire
and commander of the European section. Antigonus Monophthalmus remains
in charge of Lycia and Pamphylia, to which is added Lycaonia, Syria
and Canaan, making him commander of the Asian section.
Ptolemy retains Egypt, Lysimachus retains Phrygia and Thrace, while
the three murderers of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes
- are given the former Persian provinces of Babylonia, Media, and
Susiana respectively.
![](Elam_SusaWeddings01_full.jpg)
This
late nineteenth century engraving depicts a vision of the 'Susa
Weddings', with Stateira seated next to Alexander and several other
newlywed officers filling the rest of the scene (gravure reproduction
of a painting by Andreas Muller, Munich)
320
- 316 BC :
Antigenes
: Greek satrap. Gained Susiana after First War
of the Diadochi.
316
BC :
Eumenes
is defeated in Asia and is murdered by his own troops, and Seleucus
is forced to flee Babylon by Antigonus. The result is that Cassander
controls the European territories (including Macedonia), while the
Antigonids control those in Asia (Asia Minor, centred on Lycia and
extending as far as Susiana). Antigenes, satrap of Susiana, is killed
by Antigonus, burned alive. Susiana is subsequently drawn into Antigonus'
empire.
315
- 312? BC :
Antigonus
Monophthalmus (One Eye) : Greek satrap.
Gained Susiana after First War of the Diadochi.
314
- 311 BC :
The
Third War of the Diadochi results because the Antigonids
have grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals, so Antigonus
is attacked by Ptolemy (of Egypt), Lysimachus (of Phrygia and Thrace),
Cassander (of Macedonia), and Seleucus (who is hoping to regain
Babylonia). The latter indeed does secure Babylon and the others
conclude peace terms with Antigonus in 311 BC. Antigonus' appointment
as satrap of Media, Nicanor, is removed from his post by Seleucus,
and it seems likely that the same happens in northern Mesopotamia.
312?
- 305 BC :
Seleucus
: Greek satrap of Babylonia again. Became king
(305 BC).
The
Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC Antigonus
proclaims himself king, so the following year the other generals
do the same in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet in his
stronghold in the Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander claims
his territory. The war ends in the death of Antigonus at the Battle
of Ipsus in 301 BC.
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
Seleucus is
now king of all Hellenic territory from Syria eastwards, and the
Seleucid empire is created. The Parthians capture Susiana in 138
BC and the region's importance largely ends for several centuries.
In later years Elam is traditionally counted as being part of
Persian territory, and its modern successor, Iran.
Source
:
historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsMiddEast/
EasternElam.htm#Old%20Elamite%
20Period%20&%20Awan%20Kings |