MESOPOTAMIAN
STATES
Mesopotamia
saw the appearance of one of the earliest-known modern human cultures
outside of Africa, in the form of the Baradostian. In the thirty
thousand years since then the region had usually been at the forefront
of human cultural progression, By the fourth millennium BC, the
first city states had appeared in Sumer and Akkad in southern
Mesopotamia, and by the third they were flourishing with creative
ideas and large populations. The relatively few northern Mesopotamian
(and Syrian) states which appeared in the third millennium BC
differed somewhat from their southern contemporaries. Instead
of relying on river irrigation, the agriculture of the north was
rain-fed, so yields were lower and larger areas had to be cultivated
(though with less labour). As a result, northern cities tended
to be smaller with more people living in outlying settlements.
Although they were still city states at heart, they had more of
an appearance of being small kingdoms.
Amorites
began to filter into Syria and Mesopotamia from around 2500 BC.
The Akkadians called them Amurru, and groups of them arrived in
Sumer where they eventually replaced the Sumerians as rulers in
Mesopotamia. In the north they founded many new city states in
areas which were much less developed or advanced than in the south.
By 2100 BC non-Semitic Hurrians were filtering into these newly
developed areas from the north, and between the indigenous population,
the groups of Akkadians who had been there for some time, and
the new arrivals, the population and culture in the north was
extremely varied. Although most of the Syrian and northern Mesopotamian
peoples spoke Semitic dialects by the first part of the second
millennium BC, Hurrian names could be found as far south as Nippur,
indicating a level of linguistic heterogeneity throughout much
of Mesopotamia. Scribal practices were adopted from the south
and were apparently taught by Babylonians.
(Additional
information from The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age
Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, David
W Anthony.)
3700
- 3300 BC :
In far south-eastern
Europe, in the North Caucasus Mountains, spectacularly ostentatious
chiefs suddenly appear amongst what had previously been very
ordinary small-scale farmers. They display gold-covered clothing,
gold and silver staffs, and great quantities of bronze weapons
obtained from the newly formed cities of Middle Uruk Mesopotamia,
through Anatolian middlemen. This is probably the first true
contact between southern urban civilisations and the people
of the steppe margins, taking place about 3700-3500 BC, and
it forms the basis of the creation of Maikop culture.
Something
less obvious to many is that cannabis may be travelling in the
opposite direction to the gold and silver that is coming from
the south - this time travelling from the Pontic-Caspian steppes
to Mesopotamia and the early city states of Sumer. Greek kdnnabis
and proto-Germanic *baniptx seem to be related to the Sumerian
kuriibu. Sumerian dies out as a widely spoken language after around
2000 BC, so the connection must be a very ancient one. The international
trade of the Late Uruk period (circa 3300-3100 BC) provides a
suitable context for this trade.
c.3300
BC :
The earliest civilisation flourishes in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia
during the Uruk IV period. Making the most of new irrigation systems,
the population expands rapidly and creates approximately a dozen
city states.
![](BronzeAge_Pottery01_full.jpg)
This
fragment of Early Bronze Age pottery was produced in Mesopotamia
around 3000 BC, as the early city-building movement there began
to accelerate towards large-scale city states and a recorded history
c.2600
- c.2200 BC :
By this
date, Sumerian civilisation in the south is at its height. Although
their creation is later than those of Sumer, the early Akkaddian
or Amorite city states of the north are less well attested,
and many of them are only known from later writings.
Those
which can be identified by name include Apum, Ashnakkum (modern
Tell Chagar Bazar), Nawar, and Urkesh in the Khabur region of
what is now north-eastern Syria, Harran, Mari and Terqa along
the Euphrates, Kunara of the Lullubi in modern Kurdistan, and
Arbel, Ashur, and Ninevah in the east (the early Assyrians). These
states are in contact with each other through diplomatic and commercial
means.
Some
of these centres in northern, or upper, Mesopotamia - Mari, and
Nawar - seem to be able to impose their will on surrounding states,
but many of the details of their military actions are unknown.
c.2200
BC :
Northern
Mesopotamia is disrupted by invasions by barbarians from farther
north - such as the Gutians - and by the cold, dry period in
the Near East which lasts for three hundred years.c.2000s BC
During the
flourishing of Ur's third dynasty in Sumer, Syrian states maintain
friendly relations with the south. However, following the fall
of Ur there is a reduction in the number and sizes of settlements
in the north for reasons unknown. Documentation suffers a gap
of almost two centuries before the start of the archives at
Mari.
c.1850
- 1776 BC :
Northern
Mesopotamia has recovered fully and a wave of newer small states
or fully urbanised cities become apparent, including Andarig,
Apum, Karana, Qattara, Razama, Shushara (Shemshara), and Terqa,
making up a system of kingdoms whose rulers keep large palace
archives of diplomatic correspondence showing how vital it is
that they remain informed. In about 1809 BC, Northern Mesopotamia
and areas of Syria are conquered by the kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia.
But after the death of the kingdom's founder in about 1776 BC,
it swiftly breaks up and the old order reasserts itself. Local
rulers are constantly wary of the larger states, Babylon, Elam
or Eshnunna, which can make or break them.
c.1800?
BC :
Yahdun-Lim
of Mari sends troops to join those of Yamkhad to fight against
several hostile Syrian 'states', including Tuttul, defeating
their armies and attacking their towns. The other states which
are allied to Tuttul and are defeated alongside it are as follows
(all three are Yaminite towns located close by Terqa, under
Mari's overall control, and headed by little more than tribal
organisations):
La'um
: Amorite king of the city of Samanum & the land
of Ubrabu.
Ayalum
: Amorite king of the city of Abattum & the land
of Rabbum.
c.1770s
BC :
Bahdi-Lim,
an official of the court of Zimri-Lim of Mari in the city of
Tuttul, records the arrival of Dagan's entry into the city,
accompanied by two persons. One of these is a Yaminite chief,
and the other, Sumu-laba, may also be a chief.
Dadi-hadun
: Amorite chief of the tribe of Rabbeans.
Sumu-laba
: Amorite chief (possibly) of the clan of the Uprapeans?
c.1760s
BC :
The city
state of Babylon suddenly expands under Hammurabi to conquer
huge swathes of southern, central, and northern Mesopotamia,
including many of the states mentioned above.
c.1730
- 1720 BC :
The Kassites
invade Mesopotamia, penetrating deep into the south. There they
are defeated by the Sealand Dynasty of Babylon and are expelled
from southern Mesopotamia. They retreat north to take over the
near-abandoned city of Mari, also expanding into nearby Terqa.
By now the intensive palace system of the high number of states
in Upper Mesopotamia has become unsustainable. Many cities are
abandoned, perhaps due to a combination of popular opposition
to the system and changes in rainfall patterns. The historical
record for this region disappears.
c.1595
BC :
Mursili's
Hittites capture and destroy Alep on their way south to sack
Babylon, ending the political situation that had characterised
Syria and Mesopotamia for four centuries. Many states, such
as Apum, all decline. The region enters a dark age which lasts
for up to a century and a half in some areas. The power vacuum
allows Hurrians to migrate westwards, and the Kassites to take
control of Babylon.
c.1450
BC :
The Hurrian
state of Mitanni suddenly expands to encompass many northern
Mesopotamian and Syrian cities.
c.1360
BC :
The resurgent
Assyrians throw off their overlords, the Hittites, and establish
firm control over the heartland of Assyria - the Tigris Valley
and the plains to the east, and from Ashur to the Taurus Mountains
in the north.
c.1200
BC :
In the face
of a general collapse of authority in Syria and a marked decline
in northern Mesopotamia, including within Assyria, Aramaean
tribes migrate into both regions and begin to attack and take
over many cities. Some cities are abandoned in the face of these
attacks, such as Qattara.
This
is also the period of Israelite settlement after the exodus from
Egypt. At this time, there is general instability in the region:
the Hittite empire is destroyed in Anatolia, the Canaanites begin
to be reduced to owning the shores of what is now Lebanon (eventually
to become the sea traders known as the Phoenicians), the Philistines
and other Sea Peoples are first settling on the lower coast of
the Levant, and various neo-Hittite city states are arising in
northern Syria, many of which come into contact with the Israelites.
Mesopotamian
Empires :
The
first millennium BC was an age of empires in Mesopotamia. There
was a succession of them that would continue to rule the region
in one form or another for over a thousand years. First came the
Assyrians and their successors, the Babylonians. Then the Persians
from the east, the Greeks from the west, the Parthians from the
east again, and finally the Islamic empire. Only when the last
of these began to weaken did a situation of fragmented states
arise to match that of the second millennium BC.
(Additional
information from Europe Before History, Kristian Kristiansen,
from Unger's Bible Dictionary, Merrill F Unger (1957), and from
Easton's Bible Dictionary, Matthew George Easton (1897).)
c.900
BC :
From
around this date, rich, well-organised 'kingdoms' or 'chiefdoms'
develop in the Caucuses. They interact with civilisations to their
south, in Anatolia and Mesopotamia, usually by raiding into their
territory. Typical horse bits and cheek-pieces of an early Thraco-Cimmerian
type are found by archaeologists in the same region of the Caucuses.
![](Cimmerians_Warriors01_full.jpg)
This
image shows Cimmerians battling early Greeks - prior to the advent
of accepted 'Classical' Greece - with the mounted Cimmerians warriors
apparently being accompanied by their dogs
884
BC :
As the dark
age draws to a close, Assyria rises to become the dominant force
in northern Mesopotamia and Syria.
714
- 713 BC :
Much to
the shock of Sargon of Assyria, while his main army is occupied
in the east, Ambaris of Tabal allies himself with Midas of Phrygia
and Rusa of Urartu (possibly immediately before the latter's
suicide), as well as the local Tabalean rulers in an attempt
to invade Que. Sargon reacts quickly, invading Tabal and capturing
Ambaris, his family and the nobles of his country, all of whom
are taken to Assyria. Tabal is annexed as an Assyrian province.
Sargon is noted for using Cimmerians within his army on this
campaign, possibly for their knowledge of the Urartuan hills
as much as their ability as mounted warriors. Cimmerians have
been raiding into Mesopotamia for decades.
653
BC :
Tugdamme
of the Cimmerians begins to threaten the borders of the powerful
Assyrian empire during the reign of Ashurbanipal. Assyrian inscriptions
record him as being 'King of the Saka and Qutium'. This is very
telling, because it suggests that he rules not only over his
own Cimmerian people (which is so obvious that it need not be
mentioned), but also the Scythians. The 'Qutium' in point would
seem to be 'Gutium', homeland in the Zagros Mountains between
modern Iran and Iraq of the nomadic Gutians (often thought to
be the precursors of the Kurds). Clearly Tugdamme has already
conquered territory very close to the heartland of the Assyrian
empire, making it more possible that the Scythian masters of
the Medes at this time are in fact the Cimmerians.
Assyrian
inscriptions also refer to Tugdamme as 'Sar Kissati' which translates
as 'King of Kish' or 'King of the World'. Kish is an ancient and
highly important city state in southern Mesopotamia, which suggests
that Tugdamme now rules a vast area of land to the east and south
of the Assyrians.
612
- 605 BC :
Assyria
falls and a resurgent Babylonia gains control of much of its
former territory, including Syria, despite an attempt by Egypt
to prevent this.
Persian
Satraps of Mesopotamia :
Incorporating the Satraps of Gutium
Between
550-539 BC, Persia arose on the Iranian plateau as a formidable
power. The empire of Babylonia was taken by Cyrus the Great
in 539 BC and was added to the Persian empire. Along with that
came control of Mesopotamia and Syria, followed by Anatolia,
and much more territory in the east. The new masters administered
the captured territories as satrapies, governed regions, with
the post in (southern) Mesopotamia first going to one of Cyrus'
generals. In the fourth century, the invading Greeks maintained
the practise, replacing Persians with Greek or local satraps.
Mesopotamia
in general was divided at what is known as 'the bottleneck'
in the region of modern Baghdad. The southern section was under
the authority of Babylon while the north was part of Athura
(former Assyria), although the latter was itself initially under
Babylon's overall authority. To the east the border was formed
by the Tigris opposite Sittacene and Susiana, while to the west
the desert of Arabaya functioned as a natural boundary. The
Euphrates seperated Mesopotamia from Ebir-nari and Katpatuka.
At
the heart of southern Mesopotamia, Babylonia was not unknown
to the Greeks whose records are largely relied upon today. Even
during the Achaemenid period many Greeks travelled here, some
as traders, some as Persian military allies and some, like Herodotus,
on journeys of exploration. There seems not to have been a Greek
community in Babylon before the Argead conquest, however. Herodotus
appears to have had trouble in finding enough information to
properly fill out his Babylonian entry (such as an account of
the city's past kings). Babylonian business documents bear this
out. People they often call Greeks in fact have Anatolian names.
Nomenclature also bears this out, as the Greeks do not know
the two great rivers of Mesopotamia by their universal regional
names, Purat and Deklath, but from the Medo-Persian corruptions
of them - Ufratush and Tigra (the modern Euphrates and Tigris).
Where
these are known, the Old Persian names of the satraps are shown
first, followed by Greek and other various interpretations.
The satraps of Persian Babirush (Babylonia) are poorly attested,
especially after the post appears to become less important in
the fifth century BC. The region of Gutium covered parts of
the central Zagros Mountain range. Nothing is known about the
origins of the Gutian people who gave it this name but they
briefly conquered Sumer in the 2200s to 2100s BC before being
ejected by the king of Uruk. By the Persian period the region
was still little-known, but also of little apparent trouble.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Jewish War
& Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from The Persian
Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin,
1996), from the Cyropaedia & Anabasis, Xenophon of Athens,
from The Cambridge Ancient History, John Boardman, N G L Hammond,
D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds), from Ancient and Modern Assyrians:
A Scientific Analysis, George V Yana (Xlibris Corporation, 2008),
and from External Links: Encyclopædia Britannica, and
Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org, and
Diodorus of Sicily at the Library of World History (dead link),
and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and the Nabonidus Chronicle, contained
within Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, A K Grayson (Translation,
1975 & 2000, and now available via Livius in an improved
version).)
539
- 537? BC :
?
: Babylonian
satrap of Mesopotamia, Ebir-nari, & Phoenicia.
539 BC :
Despite
the fall of Babylon itself to the Persians, it is entirely possible
that pockets of resistance remain - or at least areas in which
Persian overlordship is tacitly acknowledged while local rule
is maintained on a semi-independent basis, at least for a time.
The Chaldeans who had provided Babylon's last dynasty of kings
may be one such case. Although specific details are not recorded,
the Book of Daniel seems to retain a memory of this in Belshar-uzur.
![](Babylon_City02_full.jpg)
Babylon
was forever diminished by its roles in two major uprisings in
the fifth century BC and by its subsequent demotion in importance
- even the arrival of the Greeks did not revive its fortunes
fl
c.539 BC :
Belshar-uzur
/ Bel-sarra-Uzur : Son of Nabonidus. The Belshazzar
of the Book of Daniel.
539
BC :
Belshar-uzur
is the son of Nabonidus and may legitimately claim to be the
true successor to the throne even though he holds no power and
doesn't have the resources to enforce his claim. He is apparently
killed by Cyrus the Great even though his father is allowed
to live, so he cannot be the otherwise unknown satrap of Babirush
for the first couple of years of Persian rule before being replaced
by Gaubaruva. Instead, as Cyrus allows existing offices to be
retained at first, this post is probably still filled by its
Neo-Babylonian incumbent.
539
- 538 BC :
Ugbaru
/ Gobryas : Satrap
of Gutium. General who helped conquer Babylon. Died.
537?
BC :
Gaubaruva
is appointed as the first Persian satrap of Babirush (Babylonia).
He is known by a whole host of interpretations of his name,
from the Old Persian Gaubaruva or the Akkadian Gubaru, to
the Greek Gobryas, and the Latin Gobar(es). He can also be
equated with the Cyaxares of the Cyropaedia, but should not
be confused with the General Ugbaru (Old Persian) or Gobryas
(Greek) who aids Cyrus the Great in the conquest of Mesopotamia
(a mistake made in the Grayson version of the Nabonidus Chronicle).
Ugbaru may in fact govern the district or province of Gutium
for a short time (land of the Gutians) before dying, having
already reached an advanced age.
537?
- 522 BC :
Gaubaruva
/ Gobryas / Gobares : Persian satrap of Mesopotamia,
Babirush, Ebir-nari, & Phoenicia.
524?
- 516 BC :
Uštani
/ Ushtanni : Satrap of Babirush (Mesopotamia), Ebir-nari,
& Phoenicia.
c.484
BC :
Although
any records to prove it have not survived, it would seem to
be in this period, between about 490-482 BC, in which Ebir-nari
is created a satrapy in its own right, removing it from the
administration of Babirush (Babylonia). The cause may well
be the revolt which arises shortly after a greater revolt
in Egypt. In fact tablets from Babylonia seem to show evidence
of two risings by claimants to the Babylonian throne. The
first uprising is that of Bel-shimanni, which can perhaps
be dated to the high summer of 484 BC. This seems only to
last a week or two before being put down.
![](Persia_BattleCunaxa01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC saw the end of just one in a number
of internal Persian revolts that often involved thousands
of troops on either side, although in this case the presence
of a large body of Greek mercenaries should have been an indicator
of the future threat the Greeks would become
fl
421 - 404? BC :
Gobryas
: Satrap of Babirush (Mesopotamia).
c.421
/ 420 BC :
This
Gobryas could be the same figure as one of the four commanders-in-chief
of the army of Artaxerxes II at the battle of Cunaxa in 401
BC as noted by Xenophon. As satrap of Babirush, Gobryas is named
in several documents from the Murašû archive in Nippur
which is dated to the years 421/420 BC to 417/416 BC. He probably
remains in that office until the accession of Artaxerxes II
in 404 BC - a prime time for reorganising officials.
fl
401 - ? BC :
Roparas
: Satrap
of Babirush (Mesopotamia).
401
BC :
Roparas
is assigned the position of satrap of Babirush (according to
Yana and Cook). Nothing more appears to be said about him, but
the seeming coincidence of having two satraps with the same
name within seventy years suggests a degree of familial relationship,
probably a grandson or great nephew.
fl
mid-300s BC :
Roparas
: Satrap
of Babirush (Mesopotamia). Lost post to Greeks?
331
BC :
The region
is conquered by the Greek empire under Alexander the Great.
At the Battle of Gaugamela, Darius' Persian units in the centre
of the formation take heavy casualties, but the commander
of one of those divisions, Ariobarzanes, satrap of Persis,
is able to leave the battlefield with his king. Darius flees
eastwards and the defence of each province is left to its
satrap.
![](Babylon_TempleBel01_full.jpg)
The
propyleum and cella of the Temple of Bel, which incorporates
Mesopotamian, Greek and Roman elements and dates primarily
to the first and second centuries AD
Mazaeus,
the satrap of Ebir-nari, initially plays his part by opposing
Alexander, but he eventually surrenders, and Alexander makes
him satrap of Argead Mesopotamia, Alexander seizes Babylon
(where Xenophon lists Roparas as satrap) and Susa and, having
gathered intelligence on Persis, he soon captures that too.
Most administrative posts are retained under the Greek empire,
including some of those in Mesopotamia.
Argead
Dynasty in Mesopotamia :
The
Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and
his two successors before the kingdom broke up into several
Hellenic sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central
and eastern Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the
region until Alexander's death in 323 BC and the subsequent
regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's successors
held no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals
who really held control of Alexander's empire. Following that
latter period and during the course of several wars, Mesopotamia
was largely left in the hands of the Seleucid empire from 305
BC.
At
the heart of southern Mesopotamia, Babylonia was not unknown
to the Greeks. Even during the Achaemenid period many Greeks
travelled here, some as traders, some as Persian military allies
and some, like Herodotus, on journeys of exploration. Nomenclature
bears out the lack of any permanent Greek presence here though,
as the Greeks do not know the two great rivers of Mesopotamia
by their universal regional names, Purat and Deklath, but from
the Medo-Persian corruptions of them - Ufratush and Tigra (the
modern Euphrates and Tigris).
After
305 BC, Seleucid rule brought changes to Mesopotamia, especially
in cities in which Greeks and Macedonians were settled. In these
cities separate agreements were usually made with the Greek
officials regarding civil and military authority, and immunity
from taxes or levees and the like. Native cities continued to
employ their old systems of local government, much as they had
under the Achaemenids. Greek gods were worshiped in temples
that were dedicated to them in the Greek cities, and native
Mesopotamian gods had temples dedicated to them in the native
cities. However, although an enforced policy of Hellenisation
was not followed, Greek ideas and practices did filter down
and were gradually adopted. There is no evidence from the east
to show that Greek religious beliefs were especially prevalent
amongst the local population to the detriment of local forms
of worship, but there is no record of persecution. On the contrary,
the rulers seem to have favoured local religious practices,
and ancient forms of worship continued. Cuneiform writing by
priests, who copied incantations and old religious texts, continued
into the Parthian period.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Jewish War
& Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from The Persian
Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin,
1996), from the Cyropaedia & Anabasis, Xenophon of Athens,
from The Cambridge Ancient History, John Boardman, N G L Hammond,
D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds), from Ancient and Modern Assyrians:
A Scientific Analysis, George V Yana (Xlibris Corporation, 2008),
from Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great, Joseph Roisman
(BRILL, 2002), and from External Links: Encyclopædia Britannica,
and Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org,
and Diodorus of Sicily at the Library of World History (dead
link), and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and the Nabonidus Chronicle,
contained within Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, A K Grayson
(Translation, 1975 & 2000, and now available via Livius
in an improved version).)
331
- 323 BC :
Alexander
III the Great :
King of Macedonia. Conquered Persia.
323
- 317 BC :
Philip
III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded
half-brother of Alexander the Great.
317
- 310 BC :
Alexander
IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander the Great
and Roxana.
331
- 328 BC :
Mazaeus
/ Mazdai : Persian satrap of Babylonia. Died 328
BC.
328
- 323 BC :
Stamenes
: Greek satrap of Babylonia (and Mesopotamia?). Died?
323
- 320 BC :
Arcesilas
/ Arcesilaus : Greek satrap of northern Mesopotamia.
Removed or fled?
322
- 320 BC :
Immediately
following Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC, Susiana is
presumably governed by Archon of Pella, who holds Babylonia
in the name of the titular successors to the empire. Arcesilas
is confirmed in northern Mesopotamia (but not Babylonia as
is sometimes claimed, thanks to the presence of Archon of
Pella).
The First
War of the Diadochi (the successors - the generals of Alexander's
army) between 322-320 BC sees civil war break out between
the generals, and Perdiccas, regent of Macedonia, is murdered
by his own generals during an invasion of Egypt. Alexander's
successor, Philip III, agrees terms with the murdering generals
and appoints them as regents.
![](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
![](Babylon_City03_full.jpg)
Despite
its gradual relegation as a place of importance in the face
of the Greek preference for Seleucia, Babylon was still of
huge importance in Mesopotamia, as can be seen in this unknown
artist's impression of the city, while above is the route
of Alexander's ongoing campaigns across the ancient world
320
BC :
A
new agreement with Antipater makes him regent of the Macedonian
empire and commander of the European section. The Antigonids
remain in charge of Lycia and Pamphylia, to which is added Lycaonia,
Syria and Phoenicia, making Antigonus commander of the Asian
section. Ptolemy retains Egypt, Lysimachus retains Phrygia and
Thrace, while the three murderers of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon,
and Antigenes - are given the former Persian provinces of Babylonia,
Media, and Susiana respectively.
Arrhidaeus,
the former regent, receives Hellespontine Phrygia, while in
northern Mesopotamia, Arcesilas seems to have fallen from
grace. It is assumed that, as a one-time supporter of Perdiccas,
he has opposed Seleucus Nicator who soon decides that he wants
the entire region in his soon-to-be-created Seleucid empire.
Amphimachus becomes his replacement.
320
- ? BC :
Amphimachus
: Greek
satrap of northern Mesopotamia.
319
- 315 BC :
The death
of Antipater leads to the Second War of the Diadochi. Philip
III is killed by his stepmother, Olympias, in 317 BC with
her being killed by Cassander the following year. Cassander
also captures Alexander IV and Roxana and installs a governor
in Athens, subsuming its democratic system. Eumenes is defeated
in Asia and murdered by his own troops, and Seleucus is forced
to flee Babylon by Antigonus in 315 BC. By this point Amphimachus
already seems to be satrap no more, although his fate is not
known.
![](Assyria_Kings01_full.jpg)
Even
in the early days of the Assyrian rise to power, in the second
millennium BC, northern Mesopotamia had largely been dominated
by Babylonia, and the Argead period saw that situation being
reinforced
?
- 315 BC :
Blitor
: Greek
satrap of northern Mesopotamia. Removed.
315
BC :
In anger
at the escape of Seleucus from Babylon, Antigonus deposes
Blitor, satrap of Mesopotamia (showing that the offices of
Babylon and Mesopotamia have been detached from one another).
The result is that Cassander controls the European territories
(including Macedonia), while the Antigonids control those
in Asia (Asia Minor, centred on Lycia and extending as far
as Susiana). Polyperchon remains in control of part of the
Peloponnese.
315
- 312? BC :
?
: Greek
satrap of northern Mesopotamia for Antigonus.
314
- 311 BC :
The
Third War of the Diadochi results because the Antigonids have
grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals, so Antigonus
is attacked by Ptolemy (of Egypt), Lysimachus (of Phrygia and
Thrace), Cassander (of Macedonia), and Seleucus (who is hoping
to regain Babylonia). The latter indeed does secure Babylon
and the others conclude peace terms with Antigonus in 311 BC.
Antigonus' appointment as satrap of Media, Nicanor, is removed
from his post by Seleucus, and it seems likely that the same
happens to the unnamed satrap of northern Mesopotamia.
312?
- ? BC :
?
: Greek
satrap of northern Mesopotamia for Seleucus.
308
- 301 BC :
The Fourth
War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC Antigonus proclaims
himself king, so the following year the other generals do
the same in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet in
his stronghold in the Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander
claims his territory. The war ends in the death of Antigonus
at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Seleucus is now king of
all Hellenic territory from Syria and Babylonia eastwards,
and the Seleucid empire is created.
![](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive
Wars of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire
would be divided
301
- 129 BC :
Seleucus
founds the city of Seleucia in Mesopotamia by massively rebuilding
and expanding an existing settlement. Alternatively known
as Seleucia-on-Tigris, the city soon provides nearby Babylon
with a major competitor and the latter begins to decline and
empty, leading to its eventual abandonment. Seleucid control
of the region, first from Babylonia, then from Seleucia, and
finally from Antioch in Syria, lasts until 126 BC.
129
- 126 BC :
Although
the Parthians have already conquered Seleucia and then Uruk
in Mesopotamia, it takes them until now to conquer Babylonia
from the weakening Seleucids. The Parthian empire retains its
holdings in Mesopotamia until it eventually breaks up, leaving
behind it a patchwork of kingdoms which remain in a loose alliance
with one another for a further two hundred years.
c.124
- 113 BC :
The Parthian
empire is looking somewhat shaky following the deaths of two
kings in battles and the loss of large areas of Mesopotamia
to the kingdom of Characene. The first notable act by the
new king is to put Hyspaosines of Characene in his place.
Then he forces the northern Mesopotamian states of Adiabene,
Gordyene, and Osrhoene to accept vassal status. The Seleucid
city of Dura-Europas is conquered in 113 BC.
![](Ancient_Dura01_full.jpg)
The
city of Dura-Europos was founded around 300 BC by the Seleucid
Greeks, seized by the Arsacid Parthians and then by the Romans,
and was then destroyed almost six hundred years after its
creation by a drawn-out border conflict between Rome and the
Sassanids
Mesopotamia's
subsequent history is as a battleground between competing Parthian
and Roman forces, and then as a frontier region of the successor
to the Parthian empire, in the form of the Sassanids. In AD 637
Mesopotamia is lost to the Arabs as they surge out of the desert
to create a caliphate that will govern the region for several hundred
years.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/
MesopotamiaCityStates.htm
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