SYRIAN
STATES
Ancient
Syria was much larger than its modern counterpart, being bordered
by the Taurus Mountains in the north, the Upper Euphrates to the
north-east, and the Syrian Desert to the south-east. The name
is Greek, which they used to describe various Assyrian peoples.
The relatively few early Syrian states which appeared in the third
millennium BC differed somewhat from their contemporaries in Sumer
and Akkad. Instead of relying on river irrigation, the agriculture
of the north was rain-fed, so yields were lower and larger areas
had to be cultivated (although with less labour). As a result,
northern cities tended to be smaller with more people living in
outlying settlements, and although they were still city states
at heart, they had more of an appearance of being small kingdoms.
Amorites
began to arrive in the territory to the west of the Euphrates,
within modern Syria, from around 2500 BC. The Akkadians called
them Amurru, and groups of them drifted down into Sumer where
they eventually replaced the Sumerians as rulers in Mesopotamia.
Enough groups remained in Syria for their name, Amurru, eventually
to be used to refer to part of Syria and all of Phoenicia and
the Levant - large areas which contained populations of Amurru
- instead of referring to them as a specific kingdom, language,
or population.
By
the first part of the second millennium BC, most of the Syrian
peoples spoke Semitic dialects, but in the northern areas of Syria
there is also evidence of non-Semitic Hurrian, a fairly obscure
population group. Hurrian names could be found as far south as
Nippur, indicating a level of linguistic heterogeneity across
the region. Scribal practices were adopted from the south and
were apparently taught by Babylonians, which quickly became the
most important city state of second millennium Mesopotamia.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the Columbia
Encyclopaedia, Sixth Edition (2010), from the Britannica Concise
Encyclopaedia (2010), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World,
4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Haywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000),
from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt
(Routledge, 2000, Volumes I & II), from The Penguin Atlas
of Ancient History, Colon McEvedy (Penguin Books, 1967, revised
2002), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near
East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians,
Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1), Enrico
Ascalone (University of California Press, 2007), from The Cambridge
Ancient History, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards (Cambridge University
Press, 1973), and from A History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323
BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007).)
c.10,000
BC :
Alep
emerges as one of the world's first inhabited settlements, showing
signs of civilisation during the eleventh millennium BC. Areas
to the immediate south of the old Aleppo - at Tell al-Ansari and
Tell as-Sawda - reveal occupation that can be dated back at least
as far as the late third millennium BC.
c.6000
BC :
Ugarit
is first founded as a permanent settlement, probably after some
centuries (or even millennia) of being used as a seasonal encampment.
The erection of a fortified wall at this point shows that the
settlement pattern here has changed, and that the site's current
occupants have no plans to leave. At some point in the next millennium,
Damas is also founded, although it remains unimportant until the
tenth century BC.
![](Chalcolithic_Pottery01_full.jpg)
Four
examples of Chalcolithic pottery that has been recovered from
archaeological sites in Syria and Anatolia, and which can be dated
between 5600-3000 BC
c.5000
BC :
Following
a slow trend of more permanent occupation across the region,
perhaps in the wake of burgeoning early civilisation in Mesopotamia,
the settlements site at Alep and Gebal are continuously inhabited
from this period onwards.
c.3400
BC :
Alakhtum
is first founded as a permanent settlement, located to the west
of the larger Syrian state of Yamkhad, about fifty kilometres
from the River Orontes. Its fortunes remain largely unknown
until the city is re-founded at the beginning of the second
millennium BC.
c.3000
BC :
Carchemish,
Ebla, and Tuba are first founded as permanent settlements. The
first of these has probably been the site of impermanent or failed
settlements since as far back as 7000 BC. Ebla and (probably)
Tuba are new, although remains of the latter have yet to be discovered,
and both start out small to achieve greatness in the mid-to-late
third millennium BC.
c.2600
- c.2200 BC :
Although
their creation is later than those of Sumer, the early Akkaddian
and Amorite city states of the north are less well attested, and
many of them are only known from later writings found in Ebla
and other places. Those that can be identified by name include
Carchemish (already mentioned at 3000 BC), Emar, and Tuttul along
the Euphrates, and Arpad, Ebla and Gebal, (both also mentioned
above), Hamath, Tuba (again, see 3000 BC), and Ugarit in the west.
These states are in contact with each other through diplomatic
and commercial means. Some of these centres, such as Ebla and
Alep, also seem to be able to impose their will on surrounding
states, but details of their military actions are relatively unknown.
c.2200
BC :
The
region is disrupted by invasions by barbarians from the north
and by the cold, dry period in the Near East which lasts for three
hundred years or so. Some cities, such as Ebla, are conquered
by Naram-Sin of Agade. He may be taking advantage of the destabilisation,
but as this conquest comes around half a century beforehand, he
may also be at least a partial cause of it.
![](Map_CentralAsia_3000BC_full.jpg)
By
around 3000 BC the Indo-Europeans had begun their mass migration
away from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, with the bulk of them heading
westwards towards the heartland of Europe
It
seems more than coincidental that 'barbarians from the north'
are causing problems at the same time as the Gutians are first
mentioned, possible Indo-European tribes who inhabit the Zagros
Mountains. In the same period, Indo-European tribes in the form
of the Luwian peoples are settling across southern Anatolia, making
it likely that one of these groups is responsible for probing
expeditions farther south.
c.2000s
BC :
During
the flourishing of Ur's third dynasty in Sumer, Syrian states
maintain friendly relations with the south. However, following
the fall of Ur, the Syrian archaeological record shows a reduction
in the number and sizes of settlements in northern Syria for reasons
unknown. Documentation on Syria suffers a gap of almost two centuries
before the start of the archives at Mari.
It
is possible that the region undergoes an economic downturn, with
only cities which control the trade routes to the south managing
to survive. These include Ebla, Tuttul, and Urshu, and messengers
from the Mediterranean city of Gebal also appear. There is no
indication of any Syrian city dominating, either militarily or
politically. Importantly, there is a strong presence of Amorites
in the region by this time, a semi-nomadic people who greatly
contribute towards the fall of Ur.
c.1800s
BC :
Syria has
recovered fully, and a wave of newer small states or fully urbanised
cities becomes apparent, including Yadiya in the far north of
ancient Syria and Qatna in the western centre. Together they
make up a system of kingdoms whose rulers keep large palace
archives of diplomatic correspondence showing how vital it is
that they remain informed.
c.1809
- 1776 BC :
Areas
of Syria are conquered by the short-lived kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia.
Following the death of its creator, Shamshi-Adad, in 1776 BC the
kingdom swiftly breaks up, with minor kingdoms reasserting themselves
throughout the region. Yamkhad remains the dominant force in north-western
Syria, controlling a large number of cities such as Alalakh, Carchemish,
Ebla, Emar, Hashshu, Tunip, Ugarit, and Urshu. Local rulers are
constantly wary of the larger states, Babylon, Elam, or Eshnunna,
which can make or break them.
![](Ancient_Emar01_full.jpg)
Although
Emar's rulers for the seventeenth century BC are unknown, could
they have aided Idrimi, son of the king of Alep, in his conquest
of Alakhtum from this city?
c.1800?
BC :
Yahdun-Lim
of Mari sends troops to join those of Yamkhad to fight against
several hostile Syrian 'states', including Tuttul. The armies
of these hostile states are defeated and their towns are attacked.
c.1720
BC :
By now the
intensive palace system operated by the high number of states
in parts of Syria has become unsustainable. Many cities are
abandoned, perhaps due to a combination of popular opposition
to the system and changes in rainfall patterns. The historical
record for this region disappears.
c.1650
- 1620 BC :
The newly
created Hittite kingdom in Anatolia attacks and destroys several
Syrian states over several years, and Carchemish and Amurru
are among the victims, subsequently falling under Hittite control.
Aramaean groups also begin to attempt to infiltrate Syria from
this point in time, although they are largely held back by the
Mitanni empire. However, they do manage to grab a foothold in
Harran.
c.1595
BC :
Mursili's
Hittites capture and destroy Alep on their way south to sack
Babylon, ending the political situation that had characterised
Syria and Mesopotamia for four centuries. States such as Apum,
Qatna, Tuttul, and Yamkhad all decline, The region enters a
dark age which lasts for up to a century and-a-half in some
areas, and the power vacuum allows Hurrians to migrate westwards.
Greater
Syrian States :
Following
the social collapse of the sixteenth century BC and the resultant
minor dark age, some royal houses could be seen to have survived,
but they were poor reflections of the past and often had no
connection to their famous predecessors. New groups had risen
to power elsewhere, such as in Mitanni and Kassite Babylonia,
and throughout the region, urbanism was initially at an all-time
low since 3000 BC. This new era was characterised as one in
which Egypt and the Hittites played major roles in controlling
Syria between them, while also maintaining its lack of unity.
In
Syria and Canaan, a new generation of more cohesive territorial
states arose, while further north and east, many of the older
states were now submerged within Mitanni. Alalakh, Emar, and
Ugarit all kept larger archives which, along with correspondence
from the major states, provides much of the picture for this
region during this era. Cities were supported by relatively
small hinterlands in which the population was sparse, meaning
that labour was in short supply. During the collapse and subsequent
dark age after 1200 BC, the newly-arrived Aramaean tribes migrated
south into Syria and the upper area of the Levant, where they
created states of their own which became increasingly dominant
until they were conquered by the Assyrians in the late eighth
century. There were still groups of Amorites in the region,
though, including those of Bashan, and those who took control
on more than one occasion in Moab.
(Additional
information from Eden, Bit Adini, and Beth Eden, Alan Millard,
from Unger's Bible Dictionary, Merrill F Unger (1957), and from
Easton's Bible Dictionary, Matthew George Easton (1897).)
Thutmose
I invades Canaan and Syria, sweeping through much of it and
raising a stele at Carchemish (so far undiscovered by archaeology).
Egypt establishes a presence but does not appear to remain in
force.
A
resurgent Egypt expands rapidly through Palestine and reaches
Mitanni-controlled Syria, making Ugarit a vassal state. The
Egyptians also raid further inland, where local resistance is
supported by Mitanni. Hittite agents are constantly at work,
trying to draw Syrian states over to them, a policy which gradually
sees them gain more influence.
Egypt's
Thutmose III campaigns in Syria again, this time sailing along
the Palestinian coast rather than marching overland. He captures
the port city of Ullaza (just north of modern Tripoli), which
belongs to the territory of Tunip, now itself a vassal of
Mitanni. On his homeward journey the pharaoh moves inland
from Ullaza and captures the city of Ardata.
Egypt
reasserts its authority in the region by conquering territory
in the Levant and Syria as far north as Amurru. The Egyptians
establish three provinces which are named Amurru (in southern
Syria), Upe (in the northern Levant, which may correspond to
Damas), and Canaan (in the southern Levant, which includes Gebal).
Each one is governed by an Egyptian official. Native dynasts
are allowed to continue their rule over the small states, but
have to provide annual tribute.
Suppiluliuma,
the new Hittite ruler, takes control of northern Syria from
Mitanni. The king of Ugarit informs the Hittites of a planned
revolt by Alalakh, so the kingdom is incorporated directly
into the empire, with its lands being assigned to Ugarit as
a reward, along with those of the territories of Nuhašše
(generally to the south of Alep), and Niya (a small and relatively
obscure kingdom in northern Syria, also known as Niye, Niy,
or Nii). During the same period, the Amarna letters between
Egypt and Assyria, and the city states of Canaan and southern
Syria, describe the disruptive activities of the habiru, painting
them as a threat to the stability of the region.
The
Hittite empire falls as general instability grips the region's
Mediterranean coast. Local cities are destroyed by the Sea Peoples
and some, such as Alalakh, Emar, and Ugarit are abandoned completely.
A major regional drought makes the situation worse. Others,
such as Damas and Yadiya, are settled by Aramaean tribes, but
survive only at a much poorer level. The Aramaeans themselves
are new arrivals, only allowed access into northern Syria since
the death of the powerful Assyrian king, Tukulti-Ninurta I,
in 1207 BC. This is also the period in which the Israelite tribes
are supposedly re-colonising areas of Palestine in the south.
The entire region falls into historical obscurity for several
centuries.
Assyria
gains a level of control over Syria following the destruction
of the Hittite empire.
c.1115
- 1077 BC :
Under
Tiglath-Pileser I, Assyria temporarily extends its power to
fully include Syria, taking overlordship of the region from
Egypt. Assyrian power quickly fades after this, and the region
is free once more. This king's campaigns against migrating Aramaean
tribes to prevent them settling in northern Mesopotamia and
southern Syria ultimately prove fruitless.
![](Halaf_Site01_full.jpg)
The
modern site of Tell Halaf was, during its existence, later known
as Guzana and it also became the capital of the Aramaean kingdom
of Bit-Bahiani, despite Assyrian attempts to prevent Aramaeans
from settling in Mesopotamia and southern Syria
870
- 857 BC :
The
Assyrians invade and subjugate Syrian states, including Bit
Adini, Bit Agusi, Carchemish, and Pattin, by which time many
small and semi-obscure cities have arisen, such as Gamgum and
Gan Dunias, along with the kingdom of Kedar in eastern Syria.
Under
Hazael, Damas expands its own borders by annexing all the Hebrew
possessions east of the Jordan, ravaging Judah, and rendering
Israel impotent. The Old Testament's 'kings of Syria' are the
Damascenes. From inscriptions by Shalmaneser III of Assyria
it appears that Hazael also withstands an attack by the Assyrian
army and keeps Damas, Syria, and Philistia independent (although
he does seize the city of Gath). However, his actions against
his neighbours unleashes a long series of conflicts with Jerusalem.
Gath is subsequently besieged and then destroyed, towards the
end of the century, and it never recovers.
853
BC :
Assyria
fights the Battle of Qarqar against twelve Syrian and Canaanite
kings, including those of Ammon, Arvad, Byblos, Damas, Edom,
Egypt, Hamath, Kedar, and Samaria. The battle consists of
the largest known number of combatants to date, and is the
first historical mention of the Arabs from the southern deserts.
Despite claims to the contrary, the Assyrians are defeated,
since they do not press on to their nearest target, Hamath,
and do not resume their attacks on Hamath and Damas for about
six years. However, in the same year, Babylonia and the rich
area of southern Mesopotamia is taken, as is Gan Dunias.
![](Map850BC_full.jpg)
When
the Neo-Assyrian empire threatened the various city states
of southern Syria and Canaan around 853 BC, they united to
protect their joint territory - successfully it seems, at
least for a time
c.840
BC :
Under
Hazael, Damas expands its own borders by annexing all the Hebrew
possessions east of the Jordan, ravaging Judah, and rendering
Israel impotent. The Old Testament's 'kings of Syria' are the
Damascenes. From inscriptions by Shalmaneser III of Assyria
it appears that Hazael also withstands an attack by the Assyrian
army and keeps Damas, Syria, and Philistia independent (although
he does seize the city of Gath). However, his actions against
his neighbours unleashes a long series of conflicts with Jerusalem.
760s
BC :
Urartu
is victorious against Assyria, and conquers the northern part
of Syria, making Urartu the most powerful state in the post-Hittite
Near East (and this probably serves to distract Assyrian attention
from the smaller Syrian kingships such as Gamgum). However,
Shamshi-ilu, the all-but independent Assyrian king of the west,
does score a victory in battle against Urartu before 745 BC,
as is recorded by a report on inscriptions of stone lions guarding
the gateways at Kar-Shulmanu-Ashared. It makes no mention of
his master, the Assyrian king.
730s
& 720s BC :
Led
by Tiglath-Pileser III, Assyria conquers most of Syria and the
Levant, including Carchemish, Damas, Gamgum, Hamath, Samaria,
Judah, Lukhuti, Moab, Pattin, and Phoenicia. In many cases,
local dynasties are removed in favour of Assyrian governors.
Some, such as Moab, appear to keep their native rulers, but
these are now tributary to Assyria.
722
BC :
The Syrians
support Mardukapaliddina II in his successful bid to usurp
the Babylonian throne.
612
- 605 BC :
Assyria
falls and Babylonia gains control of much of its former territory,
including Syria, despite an attempt by Egypt to prevent this.
Some sources do indeed state that Babylonia inherits control
of Syria immediately, but the fact that the city of Damas
definitely falls in 572 BC suggests a period of renewed independence
or a much looser alliance with the inheritors of the Assyrian
empire. It is also possible - although entirely unrecorded
- that it and other Syrian cities manage to rebel against
initial attempts to control it, necessitating the conquest
of 572 BC.
605
- 539 BC :
Babylonia
controls increasing amounts of Syria until Nabonidus angers
the Babylonians by trying to reintroduce Assyrian culture. Perhaps
because of that, resistance to Cyrus the Great of Persia, when
he enters Babylonia from the east, is limited to just one major
battle, near the confluence of the Diyala and Tigris rivers.
On 12/13 October (sources vary), Babylon is occupied by Cyrus,
who adopts an enlightened approach to his subjects, and allows
the captive Judeans to return home. Syria becomes a Persian
satrapy known as Ebir-nari.
Later
Syria :
Persian Satraps of Ebir-nari / Abarnahara (Syria &
Phoenicia) :
Conquered
in the mid-sixth century BC by Cyrus the Great, the region of
Syria was added to the Persian empire. Under Persian governance
a satrap (governor) was installed to govern it, with a generally
peaceful transfer of power (except in Philistine Gezer). Documentation
for this period is much worse than for the previous two thousand
years of Semitic domination of the region, so even the dates of
office for these governors is uncertain. This was not due to poor
record-keeping, however, but to the general use of perishable
materials such as papyrus. Many records that did exist were destroyed
during the Greek takeover of the region in the fourth century
BC when many urban centres were re-founded.
Babylonia
was the senior great satrapy in the region. The main satrapy of
Athura (former Assyria) fell within Babylonia's administrative
umbrella and was subservient to it. Thanks to its close association
with Babylonia, the name of Athura was used almost synonymously
(certainly by Herodotus and Strabo). Babylon's rank during the
Achaemenid period (and beyond) and the status of officials who
were installed there also suggest that Babylonia was the superior
great satrapy. On the occasion of the rebellion of Megabyzus in
Syria, the satrap of Babylonia was responsible for its suppression.
This alone proves its higher hierarchical rank, as does the fact
that Alexander the Great settled matters relating to Assyria in
Babylon. It was also Strabo who reported (accurately) that Athura
consisted of (old) Assyria along with Khilakku (Cilicia), Syria,
and Phoenicia. Therefore Megabyzus and other holders of his office
were satraps of all of these, even if they had their own, lesser
satraps.
Later
Syria seems to have been established as a satrapy in its own right
under the name of Ebimari or Ebir-nari (Babylonian) or Abar-Nahra
(Aramaic-Persian) - 'beyond the river [Euphrates]'. Once Syria
was stripped away from Athura, thereby lessening Babylonia's own
importance, the post of Babylonian satrap was poorly attested.
Persian freedom laws allowed the cities of the Levant (Phoenicia)
to continue to practice their own religions, carry out their own
commercial activities, and establish colonies along the Mediterranean
coast. Where these are known, the Old Persian names of satraps
are shown first, followed by Greek and other interpretations.
As
a minor satrapy, Ebir-nari (Syria) included not only Phoenicia
but also Cyprus and Palestine, which contained plenty of entities
from the Old Testament such as Megiddo, Samaria, and Gilead. The
capital is uncertain and may have moved around somewhat, although
Damascus was certainly important. The satrapy's northern boundary
with Katpatuka (Cappadocia) is only hypothetical, probably following
the Taurus ranges to the bend of the Euphrates. Syria's other
borders with Athura and Khilakku are well attested. The Cilician
border was marked by the Amanus mountain range and the Syrian
Gates, while most of the Assyrian border coincided with the course
of the Euphrates. Further south the border can only generally
be described as following the edge of the Arabian Desert. It may
have run immediately to the south of Gaza (offered by Herodotus),
but in the late Achaemenid period, after the loss of the province
of Arabia and with only a narrow Mediterranean coastal strip securing
the connection with Egypt, the southern border may have been fixed
at the Nile's Pelusian branch.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from The Cambridge Ancient History,
John Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds),
from Alexander the Great, Krzysztof Nawotka (Cambridge Scholars
Publishing, 2009), from A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography
and Mythology, William Smith (Ed), and from External Links: University
of Leicester, and Listverse, and Encyclopædia Britannica,
and the Nabonidus Chronicle, contained within Assyrian and Babylonian
Chronicles, A K Grayson (Translation, 1975 & 2000, and now
available via Livius in an improved version), and Encyclopaedia
Iranica, and People in the Bible Confirmed Archaeologically (Bible
Archaeology Society).)
539
- 537? BC :
? : Babylonian satrap of Mesopotamia, Ebir-nari, &
Phoenicia.
539
BC :
Despite
the fall of Babylon itself to the Persians, it is entirely possible
that pockets of resistance remain - or at least areas in which
Persian overlordship is tacitly acknowledged while local rule
is maintained on a semi-independent basis, at least for a time.
The Chaldeans who had provided Babylon's last dynasty of kings
may be one such case. Although specific details are not recorded,
the Book of Daniel seems to retain a memory of this in Belshar-uzur.
![](Persia_BabylonPalace01_full.jpg)
This
Achaemenid (Persian empire) palace decoration stood in the city
of Babylon and was transported to Berlin upon being rediscovered
by archaeologists in the twentieth century
fl
c.539 BC :
Belshar-uzur
/ Bel-sarra-Uzur : Son of Nabonidus. The Belshazzar of
the Book of Daniel.
539
BC :
Belshar-uzur
is the son of Nabonidus and may legitimately claim to be the true
successor to the throne even though he holds no power and doesn't
have the resources to enforce his claim. He is apparently killed
by Cyrus the Great even though his father is allowed to live,
so he cannot be the otherwise unknown Babylonian satrap for the
first couple of years of Persian rule before being replaced by
Gaubaruva. Instead, as Cyrus allows existing offices to be retained
at first, this post is probably still filled by its Neo-Babylonian
incumbent.
537?
- 522 BC :
Gaubaruva
/ Gobryas / Gobares : Persian satrap of Babylonia (Mesopotamia),
Ebir-nari, & Phoenicia.
537?
BC :
Gaubaruva
is appointed as the first Persian satrap of Babylonia. He is known
by a whole host of interpretations of his name, from the Old Persian
Gaubaruva or the Akkadian Gubaru, to the Greek Gobryas, and the
Latin Gobar(es). He can also be equated with the Cyaxares of the
Cyropaedia, but should not be confused with the General Ugbaru
(Old Persian) or Gobryas (Greek) who aids Cyrus the Great in the
conquest of Mesopotamia (a mistake made in the Grayson version
of the Nabonidus Chronicle). Ugbaru may in fact govern the district
or province of Gutium for a short time before dying, having already
reached an advanced age.
537
- 520 BC :
Sheshbazzar
is instructed by Cyrus the Great to begin construction of the
Second Temple in Jerusalem, sited over the ruins of the First
Temple. He is supplied with the store of gold and silver vessels
that Nebuchadnezzar had removed. In 520 BC, Zorobabel (Zerubbabel),
Hebrew by birth of the House of David, is commanded to complete
the now-stalled work on the temple. His superior would be Tattenai
of Ebir-nari.
524?
- 516 BC :
Uštani
/ Ushtanni : Satrap of Babylonia (Mesopotamia), Ebir-nari,
& Phoenicia.
fl
c.520 - 500 BC :
Tattenai
/ Tatannu : Syrian sub-satrap. Mentioned in Old Testament's
Book of Ezra.
502
BC :
A number of cuneiform tablets bear the name 'Tattenai', having
survived as part of what could be a family archive. One tablet
in particular links him to Syria and to his mention in the Old
Testament, a promissory note dated to the twentieth year of Darius
I, which would be 502 BC. It identifies a witness to a transaction
as a servant of 'Tattannu, governor of beyond the river [Euphrates]'.
![](Israel_SecondTemple01_full.jpg)
Construction
of the Second Temple in Jerusalem was begun on the order of Persia's
King Cyrus the Great, with the work being under the direct command
of his satraps in Judah, Sheshbazzar and Zorobabel
Although
any records to prove it have not survived, it would seem to be
in this period, between about 490-482 BC, in which Ebir-nari is
created a satrapy in its own right, removing it from the administration
of Babylonia. The cause may well be the revolt in Babylonia which
arises shortly after a greater revolt in Egypt. In fact tablets
from Babylonia seem to show evidence of two risings by claimants
to the Babylonian throne. The first is a minor affair, but the
second, in 482 BC, seems more serious.
After
that, Xerxes removes 'King of Babylonia' from his own titles and
Babylonia is no longer a kingdom, merely a province of the Persian
empire. The satraps here show a tendency to be hereditary, in
the fashion of many of the posts in Anatolia from around this
point onwards, but with less success at forming a single commanding
dynasty.
c.480
- 465 BC :
Megabyzus / Baghabuxsha : Satrap.
Died 440 BC (aged 76).
465
- c.447 BC :
Megabyzus may hand over the satrapy of Ebir-nari (possibly to
his son) to go and deal with the rebellion in Mudraya. Subsequently,
the captured Egyptian prince, Inarus, is crucified along with
fifty Athenian prisoners by Amestris, the queen mother. Megabyzus
had negotiated an armistice with Inarus with promises of safe
conduct and he now feels that his honour has been compromised.
He returns to Ebir-nari and proceeds to revolt.
As
the region's superior - at least until very recently - the satrap
of Babylonia is responsible for the suppression of the revolt,
but the able Megabyzus routs not one but two expeditions which
are sent against him. Both commanders are wounded by him in person
(just as Inarus had been), and he himself sustains a wound, all
of which apparently satisfies honour and he is reconciled with
the Persian king.
?
- c.417? BC :
Artyphios
: Son. Satrap? Revolted & executed.
c.417
BC :
A
few years after securing the throne (probably after 417 BC) Darius
II has to contend with a revolt by his full brother, Arsites.
The driving force here is Artyphios, son of Megabyzus, possible
successor to his father as satrap in Ebir-nari. Darius suffers
two reverses before he is finally able to put down the revolt
by seducing the Greek mercenaries of Artyphios. Both rebel leaders
are put to death.
![](Persia_DariusII_01_full.jpg)
Construction
of the Second Temple in Jerusalem was begun on the order of Persia's
King Cyrus the Great, with the work being under the direct command
of his satraps in Judah, Sheshbazzar and Zorobabel
Belsunu
/ Bel-shunu / Belesys : Satrap of
Athura, Ebir-nari, & Phoenicia.
fl
401 & 387 BC :
Abrocomas
: Satrap of Ebir-nari & Phoenicia.
401
BC :
Cyrus,
satrap of Asia Minor, attempts to revolt, mobilising an army and
ten thousand Greek mercenaries to attack his brother. Defeat leads
to his death in October 401 BC at the Battle of Cunaxa. Abrocomas,
having been assembling forces for a re-invasion of Egypt, marches
to the assistance of Artaxerxes II. He arrives following the battle's
conclusion but the extra manpower is no doubt ideal in handling
mopping-up operations.
389
- 387 BC :
Abrocomas joins two Persian army commanders - Pharnabazus (not
to be confused with Pharnabazus II of Phrygia) and Tithraustes
(former satrap of Sparda) - in the attempted reconquest of Egypt.
Their efforts meet with little success as the Egyptians have relearned
how to defend their country.
fl
351/350 BC :
Belsunu
/ Bel-shunu / Belesys : Satrap of
Ebir-nari & Phoenicia.
346
BC :
In
tandem with Satrap Mazaeus of Khilakku, Belsunu leads fresh contingents
of Greek mercenaries to put down the revolt in the Levant. Phoenicia
is attacked first, but both satraps are repulsed. The Persian
king himself is forced to follow up with a more direct intervention.
It
is known that Mazaeus is issuing coins in Sidon as satrap of Ebir-nari
during his time in office (353-333 BC), which makes problematical
the assignment here of Belsunu (not to mention Arsames, below).
However, Mazaeus could be acting as the senior satrap, overseeing
both Belsunu and Ebir-nari, perhaps distantly at first, and more
directly later. Arsames could be a short term replacement in 333
BC alone.
?
- 333 BC :
Arsames
: Satrap of Athura, Ebir-nari, Khilakku &
Phoenicia. Killed.
334
- 330 BC :
In
334 BC Alexander of Macedon launches his campaign into the Persian
empire by crossing the Dardanelles. The first battle is fought
on the River Graneikos (Granicus), eighty kilometres (fifty miles)
to the east. Much of Anatolia falls by 333 BC and Alexander proceeds
into Syria during 333-332 BC to receive the submission of Ebir-nari,
which also gains him Harran, Judah, and Phoenicia (principally
Byblos and Sidon, with Tyre holding out until it can be taken
by force).
![](Macedonia_Alexander03_full.jpg)
Alexander
the Great crossed the River Graneikos (or Granicus) in 334 BC
to spark a direct face-off with the Persians that had been brewing
for generations, and his victory in battle near the river sent
shockwaves through the Persian empire
Athura,
Gaza, and Egypt also capitulate (not without a struggle in Gaza's
case). Mazaeus of Athura initially plays his part by opposing
Alexander, but he eventually surrenders, and Alexander makes him
satrap of Mesopotamia before going on to seize Babylon and Susa
and, having gathered intelligence on Persis, he soon captures
that too. Most administrative posts are retained under the Greek
empire, including some of those in Mesopotamia.
Argead
Dynasty in Abarnahara (Coele Syria) :
The
Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who reached
their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his two successors
before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic sections. Following
Alexander's conquest of central and eastern Persia in 331-328
BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's death
in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in 310
BC. Alexander's successors held no real power, being mere figureheads
for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire.
Following that latter period and during the course of several
wars, Abarnahara was left in the hands of the Seleucid empire
from 301 BC.
Later
Syria seems to have been established by the Achaemenid Persians
as a satrapy in its own right under the name of Ebimari or Ebir-nari
(Babylonian) or Abar-Nahra (Aramaic-Persian) - 'beyond the river
[Euphrates]'. As a minor satrapy, Syria included not only Phoenicia
but also Cyprus and Palestine, which contained plenty of entities
from the Old Testament such as Megiddo, Samaria, and Gilead. The
capital is uncertain and may have moved around somewhat, although
Damascus was certainly important. The satrapy's northern boundary
with Cappadocia is only hypothetical, probably following the Taurus
ranges to the bend of the Euphrates. Syria's other borders with
Athura (former Assyria) and Cilicia are well attested. The Cilician
border was marked by the Amanus mountain range and the Syrian
Gates, while most of the Assyrian border coincided with the course
of the Euphrates. Further south the border can only generally
be described as following the edge of the Arabian Desert. By Alexander's
time it may have been fixed at the Nile's Pelusian branch, but
Coele Syria may from the beginning (the winter of 333/332 BC)
have been divided in two, with a north and south that each had
its own satrap.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from The Cambridge Ancient History,
John Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds),
from Alexander the Great, Krzysztof Nawotka (Cambridge Scholars
Publishing, 2009), from Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian of Nicomedia,
and from External Links: University of Leicester, and Listverse,
and Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Nabonidus Chronicle,
contained within Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, A K Grayson
(Translation, 1975 & 2000, and now available via Livius in
an improved version), and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and The Government
of Syria under Alexander the Great, A B Bosworth (The Classical
Quarterly Vol 24, No 1, May, 1974, pp 46-64, Cambridge University
Press on behalf of The Classical Association (available at JSTOR)).)
332
- 323 BC :
Alexander
III the Great : King of Macedonia. Conquered Persia.
323
- 317 BC :
Philip
III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded half-brother
of Alexander the Great.
317
- 310 BC :
Alexander
IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander the Great and
Roxana.
333/332
BC :
In
the winter following his capture of Syria, Alexander the Great
appoints Menon, son of Cerdimmas, to the satrapy of Coele Syria.
He is assigned allied cavalry for the defence of the region while
Alexander proceeds into Phoenicia to undertake the sieges of Tyre
and Gaza before entering Egypt.
![](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map,
with them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across
the vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
333
- ? BC :
Menon
: Greek satrap of Coele Syria. In the north only?
333/332
BC :
Parmenion,
Alexander's commander of the successful Phrygian campaign, also
remains in Syria, possibly to continue to secure the south before
he joins the siege of Tyre in summer 332. Andromachus is his successor
in Syria. While both appointments may be in a military role rather
than as satrap, it cannot be ruled out that they are effectively
satraps of southern Syria which is still unpacified. These uncertain,
potentially southern, satraps are shown in green to differentiate
them.
333
- 332 BC :
Parmenion
: Greek
satrap of Coele Syria (in the south only)?
332
- 331 BC :
Andromachus
: Greek satrap of Coele Syria (in the south only)?
Killed.
?
- 331 BC :
Arimmas
: Greek satrap of Coele Syria (north?). Removed by Alexander.
331
BC :
By late summer 331 BC it is Arimmas who commands in Coele Syria
(perhaps only in the north?). On his way back from Egypt and before
he crosses the Euphrates, Alexander deposes this satrap and replaces
him with Asclepiodorus, son of Eunicus. Andromachus has been captured
and burned alive by the Samaritans who have to be punished by
Alexander.
Clearly
events have been moving swiftly in Syria, with Menon having disappeared
without any surviving record to show it, and his incompetent or
dangerous successor needing to be removed. As for the late Andromachus,
he is replaced by a certain Memnon who is probably the same figure
as the Menon of 333 BC.
331
BC :
Asclepiodorus
: Greek satrap of Coele Syria. In the north only?
331
BC :
Memnon (Menon?) :
Greek satrap of Coele Syria (in the south only)?
331
BC :
With
the Samaritan insurgency dealt with, Syria seems to be securely
under Macedonian Greek control. It would seem that the region
can no longer justify two commanders, especially with the one
in the south appearing to be a military appointment rather than
an administrative one. From around this point onwards Syria seems
to revert to a single satrapal territory with only one incumbent.
![](Persia_DariusIII_01_full.jpg)
Alexander
defeated the Persian king Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela
in Mesopotamia in 331 BC
The
post is given to Menes at the end of 331 BC who also commands
a rather vast swathe of neighbouring territory. Asclepiodorus
and Memnon (presumably the same Menon of 333 BC, not named in
this instance but with a certain Bessus incorporated by mistake
in his place in the records) are responsible for delivering in
person the results of the recruitment drive to Alexander by 329
BC, when he is in Zariaspa in Bactria. Menon (if not Memnon) is
satrap of Arachosia and Gedrosia by 330 BC.
331
- 323? BC :
Menes
: Greek satrap of Athura, Cilicia, Phoenicia,
& Syria.
329
BC :
The
appointment of Menes (probably the son of Dionysius who had been
raised to the circle of Alexander's 'Bodyguards' in 333 BC - a
major distinction which would mark him out as a commanding figure)
in such a satrapal role over so much territory has been called
into question by scholars. He has even been labelled as nothing
more than a communications officer despite scholars linking him
the the 'Bodyguards' role.
?
: Unnamed deputy or stand-in?
329
- 328? BC :
Either
way, Menes is not in direct command of Syria in 329 BC, but around
332 BC the satrap of Cilicia, Balacrus, is killed in battle and
Menes may be required there as well as in Syria as a matter of
urgent expediency, while Alexander's crossing of the Euphrates
is imminent. The fact that Menes is also in Zariaspa in Bactria
in 329 BC with his own levy of troops makes it clear that his
appointment is largely to retain peaceful control without launching
any unnecessary offensives against remaining pockets of Persian
resistance while raising as many recruits as possible for Alexander's
drive eastwards. However, records regarding Syria now fall silent
until the death of Alexander, so Menes may well retain his position
until then once he has returned from Bactria.
323
- 319 BC :
Laomedon
of Mitylene : Greek satrap of Syria
& Phoenicia. Unseated.
320
- 319 BC :
Laomedon has been confirmed in his position during the second
partition of Alexander's empire in 321 BC in the middle of the
First War of the Diadochi, while Cilicia has been separated as
a satrapy in its own right. But Ptolemy of Egypt soon begins taking
an interest, offering him a large bribe to hand over his satrapy.
When Laomedon declines his offer, Ptolemy sends an army under
the command of Nicanor to take it by force by 318 BC.
![](Hellenic_PtolemyI_Coin01_full.jpg)
Shown
here is an Hellenic-era Egyptian coin which displays the head
of Ptolemy I, Greek founder of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty following
the death of Alexander the Great
Laomedon
has little with which to resist so he is taken prisoner, escapes,
and seemingly joins the general opposition to the Antigonids.
His final fate is unknown while Antigonus governs Syria during
the period of the remaining Wars of the Diadochi.
318
- 313 BC :
Ptolemy
: Greek ruler of Egypt. Evacuated.
319
- 301 BC :
The
domination of Syria and Phoenicia by Ptolemy of Egypt briefly
comes to an end in 313 BC when he joins the widespread opposition
to the Antigonids. In 312 BC Seleucus Nicator defeats Demetrius,
son of Antigonus, at the Battle of Gaza which briefly allows Ptolemy
to reoccupy Coele Syria. Following a reversal in battle fortunes
he pulls out again as Antigonus invades Syria in strength to occupy
it.
312
BC :
Ptolemy
: Greek ruler of Egypt. Briefly retook the region.
312
- 301 BC :
Antigonus
Monophthalmus (One Eye) : Greek ruler of Lycia. Commanded
through conquest.
301
- 63 BC :
Much
of Syria is gained by the Hellenic Seleucid empire following the
decisive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, although Seleucus allows Ptolemy
to retain Coele Syria. Seleucus had already declared himself king
of Syria and Babylonia in 305 BC, immediately founding the city
of Seleucia in Mesopotamia by massively rebuilding and expanding
an existing settlement. Now he also founds the city of Antioch
on the Orontes (Syrian Antioch). Over the years, the Seleucids
go to war against Ptolemaic Egypt over the rest of Syria, with
full possession finally being gained at the end of the Fifth Syrian
War in 195 BC.
In
time, though, crushed out of existence by the Romans on one side
and the Parthians on the other, the Seleucid empire is terminated
by 63 BC. Antiochus XIII, the last Seleucid ruler of any kind,
is dethroned by Pompey when he turns Syria into a Roman province.
Antioch on the Orontes (Syrian Antioch) continues to be an important
city throughout the subsequent Roman period, and serves as a major
centre of early Christianity.
AD
256 :
The
Sassanids capture the Roman fortress city of Dura in eastern Syria.
Part of their efforts to take the fortress involves digging a
deep mine under the city wall and a tower. The Romans tunnel from
the other side to intercept them and a shaft is created around
the intercept point. The precise outcome is unknown.
![](Ancient_Dura01_full.jpg)
The
city of Dura-Europos had been founded in 300 BC by the Seleucid
Greeks, seized by the Arsacids and then by the Romans, and was
then destroyed almost six hundred years after its creation by
a drawn-out border conflict between Rome and the Sassanids
In
the early 1900s, archaeologist Robert du Mesnil du Buisson discovers
a pile of nineteen Roman bodies in the mines. Only one Sassanid
body is nearby. In 2009 Simon James of the University of Leicester
theorises that the Sassanids hear the Romans in their counter-digging
and ignite a fire to meet them. The Romans open the shaft between
the two mines, possibly to vent the smoke. Sulphur and bitumen
is discovered in the mine, possibly making the Roman bodies the
earliest victims of chemical warfare to be discovered.
James
believes that the Sassanid deliberately throw these chemicals
onto the fire to create deadly fumes, which become sulphuric acid
in the lungs of their enemies. The one dead Sassanid soldier is
probably the fire's starter and is unable to get out in time.
Once the smoke clears, the Sassanids quickly pile the bodies like
a shield into the countermine and destroy it. Their mining efforts
do not collapse the walls, but the Sassanids eventually get in
anyway. They kill some of the residents and deport the rest to
Persia. The Seleucid-founded Dura is abandoned forever.
In
AD 395 the Roman empire is partitioned. Syria is part of the Eastern
Roman empire. Damascus follows the general Syrian sequence of
events, but it becomes part of the Nabataean kingdom in the first
century AD. In 638-640 Syria is conquered by Islam, and becomes
part of the empire and with its own governors of Syria.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/SyriaCityStates.htm