A period
of anarchy engulfs Assyria as usurper after usurper grabs
the throne. None of them come from the royal house, hence
the term, 'son of a nobody'.
c.1726
- 1707 BC :
Puzur-Sin :
Usurper.
c.1706
- ? BC :
Ashur-dugal :
Usurper. 'Son of a nobody.' All the usurpers classed
this way.
Ashur-apla-idi :
Usurper.
Nasir-Sin :
Usurper.
Sin-Namir :
Usurper.
Ipqi-Ishtar :
Usurper.
?
- 1701 BC :
Adad-salulu
: Usurper.
c.1701
BC :
The final
usurper replaces Adad-salulu and proves to have more staying
power than the rest. Adasi founds a new dynasty, still under
Babylonian overlordship.
Adasi
Vassal Kings Under Babylonia :
c.1701 - c.1475 BC :
Adasi
came to power in an Assyria which was still being dominated
by the Amorite Babylonian empire in southern Mesopotamia.
However, his descendants would continue to rule Assyria until
722 BC.
c.1701
BC :
Adasi :
Last of the usurpers.
c.1700
- 1691 BC :
Belu-bani :
Son.
1690
- 1673 BC :
Libaia :
Son.
1673
- 1661 BC :
Sharma-Adad
I : Son.
1661
- 1649 BC :
Iptar-Sin
: Son.
1649
- 1621 BC :
Bazaia :
Son.
1621
- 1615 BC :
Lullaia :
'Son of a nobody.'
1615
- 1601 BC :
Kidin-Ninua
/ Shu-Ninua : Son of Bazaia.
1601
- 1598 BC :
Sharma-Adad
II : Son.
1598
- 1585 BC :
Erishum
III : Son.
c.1595
BC :
Babylon's
power collapses and the Assyrians probably enjoy a period
of independence.
![](Assyria_Kings01_full.jpg)
The
ability of Assyria's kings to maintain political independence
from Babylon during this period was limited
1585
- 1579 BC :
Shamshi-Adad
II : Son.
1579
- 1563 BC :
Ishme-Dagan
II : Son.
1563
- 1547 BC :
Shamshi-Adad
III : Son.
1547
- 1521 BC :
Ashur-Nirari
I : Brother.
1521
- 1497 BC :
Puzur-Ashur
III : Son.
1497
- 1483 BC :
Enlil-Nasir
I : Son.
1483
- c.1475 BC :
Nur-Ili :
Son.
c.1475
BC :
The
Assyrians are annexed by the Hurrian empire of Mitanni. The
kings of the Adasi dynasty again become vassal kings.
Adasi
Vassal Kings Under Mitanni :
c.1475 - c.1392 BC
The
Hurrian empire of Mitanni was situated on Assyria's western
border, and it apparently dominated the region at this time,
subjugating the Assyrians and ending the Old Kingdom Period.
A minor Hurrian state also existed in formerly Assyrian Arrapkha.
The early Assyrians at this time may have been part of a polity
known as Subartu, which seems already to have existed on the
upper Tigris for a millennium, since the Kings in Tents period.
1475
- 1472 BC :
Ashur-Shaduni :
Son.
1472
- 1452 BC :
Ashur-Rabi
I : Son of Enlil-Nasir I.
1452
- 1432 BC :
Ashur-Nadin-Ahhe
I : Son.
c.1440
- 1410 BC :
Saushtatar,
ruler of Mitanni and son of Parshatatar, issues a seal which
is sent to the ruler of Arrapha to discuss the reorganisation
of several minor town governorships. It can be concluded that
Ithiya of Arrapha acknowledges Mitanni as his overlord, acts
as Mitanni's key representative in the Arrapha region to the
east of Mitanni, and also allows an approximate date to be
given to his reign. Ashur, which lies on the road from Mitanni
to Arrapha is not mentioned at all, showing that the Assyrians
are still a very minor, subject group.
1432
- 1426 BC :
Enlil-Nasir
II : Brother. Usurped the throne.
1426
- 1419 BC :
Ashur-Nirari
II : Son.
c.1415
BC :
The
king of Mitanni, Saushtatar, reduces Assyria, and humiliates
its inhabitants by sending the doors of the famous temple
of Ashur back to Washukkanni. Records of Assyrian rulers after
this point become confused.
1419
- 1410 BC :
Ashur-Bel-Nisheshu :
Son.
1410
- 1402 BC :
Ashur-Rim-Nisheshu :
Son.
1402
- 1392 BC :
Ashur-Nadin-Ahhe
II : Son.
c.1392
BC :
The
Hittites in Anatolia wrest control of the Assyrians from Mitanni,
and the period of vassal kings ends as the Assyrians gain
more freedom under their new overlords.
Middle
Kingdom Period :
After
domination by Mitanni, northern Mesopotamia was dominated
by the Hittites. They did not directly annexe Assyrian cities,
so the Assyrians had more freedom than before, and after a
century of building up their resources, the Assyrians finally
rose to become a major power and a leading player in regional
affairs from circa 1300 BC.
Dates
for rulers between 1420 and 1179 BC are uncertain because
there are several lists which don't always agree with each
other. The dates used here are the traditional ones from King
List A, as opposed to Lists B and C. Dates from 1179 BC are
not completely certain but are generally agreed. Some scholars
begin the Middle Period from the fall of the kingdom of Upper
Mesopotamia.
Adasi
Dynasty :
1392 - 1014 BC
The
core of the Assyrian empire was centred on the capital, which
was still Assur (or Asshur). It encompassed what is now northern
Iraq (the Ninevah Plains), south-eastern Turkey (from Van
southwards), north-eastern Syria, and areas of Iran on the
Iraqi/Turkey border. From the reign of Assur-Uballit, the
ruler's title was 'king of Assur' in place of the previous
'vice regent (of the god Assur)'.
1392
- 1365 BC :
Eriba-Adad
I : Son of Ashur-Bel-Nisheshu.
1365
- 1329 BC :
Assur-Uballit
I : Laid the foundations of the new empire.
c.1360
- 1307 BC :
The
resurgent Assyrians throw off their overlords, the Hittites.
Assur-Uballit establishes firm control over the heartland
of Assyria - the Tigris Valley and the plains to the east
and from Assur to the Taurus Mountains in the north. In the
process, Assyria regains Arrapkha from the Hurrians. The king
also exchanges correspondence with Akhenaten of Egypt during
his reign (the Armana letters), claiming a status at least
equal to that of the king of Mitanni.
1345
BC :
The king
of Bablonia is happy to marry the daughter of the powerful
Assyrian king, but the marriage leads to the Kassite faction
at court murdering their ruler and replacing him with a pretender.
Assur-Uballit marches into Babylonia to avenge his son-in-law
and raises a new king to the throne.
1329
- 1319 BC :
Enlil-Nirari
: Son.
Assyria's
power temporarily declines after the death of Assur-Uballit
I. His immediate successors are unable to exert international
influence. A period of instability follows after invaders
from the Taurus mountains, north of Assyria, occupy Arik-den-ili
for a number of years, but are then successfully repelled.
1319
- 1307 BC :
Arik-Den-Ili
: Son.
1307
- 1274 BC :
Adad-Narari
I : Son. First of three successive strong rulers.
c.1300
BC :
The
tables are turned on their previous overlords and Assyria
becomes the overlord to Mitanni. Adad-Narari I firmly establishes
the Assyrian empire.
1274
- 1244 BC :
Shalmaneser
I : Son.
c.1270
BC :
Mitanni
rebels against Assyrian rule, but their revolt is totally
crushed and the Hurrians fall completely under Assyrian control,
ending their own distinctive civilisation.
1244
- 1207 BC :
Tukulti-Ninurta
I : Son. Possibly the Bible's Nimrod
of Babylon. Assassinated.
c.1240?
BC :
A
second rebellion against Assyrian overlordship in the northern
and western areas of Hangilbat (Mitanni) leads Tukulti-Ninurta
I to annexe the entirety of northern Syria east of the Euphrates.
His forces are left facing the Hittites, but only minor battles
are fought between them.
1235
- 1227 BC :
Tukulti-Ninurta
begins Assyria's series of regional conquests by capturing
Babylonia. After a period of direct rule, puppet rulers are
placed on the throne until the Assyrians are thrown out in
1217 BC. Assyrian armies also campaign to the north, in eastern
Anatolia, where they first encounter peoples called the Nairi
and Uruatri. Tukulti-Ninurta's reign is followed by dynastic
struggles within the empire which allows Aramaeans to infiltrate
into eastern Anatolia and northern Syria, following years
of them being kept at bay.
![](Assyria_PedestalNuska01_full.jpg)
Shown
here is a cult pedestal of the god Nuska which came from from
the Temple of Ishtar and was apparently produced during Tukulti-Ninurta's
reign
1207
- 1203 BC :
Ashur-Nadin-Apli
: Son. Seized the throne from his father.
1203
- 1197 BC :
Ashur-Nirari
III : Son.
1197
- 1192 BC :
Enlil-Kudurri-Usur
: Son of Tukulti-Ninurta.
1192
BC :
Ninurta-Apil-Ekur
follows the route taken by Shamshi-Adad I, seven hundred years
before, and seizes the throne.
1192
- 1180 BC :
Ninurta-Apil-Ekur
I : Son of Ila-Hadda, descendent
of Eriba-adad (1392 BC).
c.1185
BC :
With
the fall of Emar in the west, and the internal problems faced
by the Assyrians themselves, the border outposts are reduced
in size and scribal activity is stopped. The countryside is
controlled by Aramaeans, who become prominent in military
and political terms.
1180
- 1134 BC :
Ashur-Dan
I : Son of Ashur-Nadin-Apli.
c.1150
BC :
Assyria
gains power over Syria and Philistia from a weakened Egypt.
1134
BC :
The
death of the king brings a short period of instability to
Assyria as his sons contest the throne. Elam appears to raid
Assyria and Babylonia at will, while the reigns of the sons
of Ashur-Dan are very short and peace is only restored by
Ashur-Rech-Ishi.
1134
BC :
Ninurta-Tukulti-Ashur
: Son. Contested crown with younger brother.
1134
BC :
Mutakkil-Nusku
: Brother. Held the throne briefly before he died.
1133
- 1115 BC :
Ashur-Resh-Ishi
I : Son. Stabilised Assyria internally.
1115
- 1077 BC :
Tiglath-Pileser
I / Tikulti-apal-Esharra : Son.
Tiglath-Pileser
campaigns aggressively in all directions, fighting Aramaeans
and Mushku in the Syrian west, and preventing the latter from
invading Assyria itself, conquering cities such as Amrit and
the cities of the Lullubi, raiding Babylonia in the south,
and reaching the shores of Lake Van in the territories of
Nairi and Urartu in the north, forcing the state of Kummuhu
to pay tribute. Babylonia responds, however, by capturing
Ekallatum, near Assur, and all the conquests prove to be short-lived.
![](Halaf_Site01_full.jpg)
The
modern site of Tell Halaf was, during its existence, later
known as Guzana and it also became the capital of the Aramaean
kingdom of Bit-Bahiani, despite Assyrian attempts to prevent
Aramaeans from settling in Mesopotamia and southern Syria
1076
- 1075 BC :
Ashared-apil-Ekur
: Son.
1074
- 1057 BC :
Ashur-bel-kala
: Brother.
1076
- 934 BC :
Recent
Aramaean migrations into Mesopotamia increase to the point
where Assyria is seriously weakened and begins a decline and
a century of total obscurity, reduced to its heartland.
1056
- 1055 BC :
Eriba-Adad
II : Son.
1054
- 1051 BC :
Shamshi-Adad
IV : Son of Tiglath-Pileser. Ousted Eriba-Adad II.
1050
- 1032 BC :
Ashurnasirpal
I : Son.
1031
- 1020 BC :
Shalmaneser
II : Son.
1019
- 1014 BC :
Ashur-Nirari
IV : Son.
Neo-Assyrian
Empire Period :
The
whole region, from the Hittites in Anatolia, Egypt, Syria
and the Levant, through Assyria and into Babylonia, was at
this time in the grip of a dark age resulting from the general
instability of circa 1200 BC, and a new people, the Aramaeans,
were migrating into the surrounding countryside, exacerbating
the situation. A major regional drought made the situation
even worse. The Aramaean migrations effectively destroyed
the Assyrian Middle Empire, and it was a hundred and forty
years before the situation settled down with the Aramaeans
founding small states of their own, mostly in Syria. Then
Assyria was rebuilt by Ashur-Dan II and extended once more
by his successors.
(Additional
information from A New Luwian Stele and the Cult of the Storm-God
at Til Barsib-Masuwari, Guy Bunnens & Isabelle Leirens,
from Eden, Bit Adini, and Beth Eden, Alan Millard, from The
Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Routledge Handbook
of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia, Trevor
Bryce, and from External Link: The Cities of the Medes, Mordechai
Cogan & Israel Eph'al (Eds, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem).)
Ashur-Rabi
Dynasty :
1014 BC - 722 BC
The
Neo-Assyrian Empire Period starts from 911 BC, and is the
best documented of the three periods. From this point dates
are certain.
1013
- 973 BC :
Ashur-rabi
II : Son of Ashurnasirpal.
972
- 968 BC :
Ashur-resha-ishi
II : Son.
967
- 935 BC :
Tiglath-Pileser
II : Son.
935
- 911 BC :
Ashur-Dan
II : Son. Rebuilt Assyria within its natural borders.
911
- 889 BC :
Adad-Nirari
II : Son.
Adad-Nirari
solves the Aramaean problem by conquering them at Nisbin and
then marching down the Khabur Valley to obtain submission
from a series of Aramaean-controlled cities in Mesopotamia
and Syria, including Alep (Lukhuti), Aram-Nahara'im, and Bit-Bahiani.
889
- 884 BC :
Tukulti-Ninurta
II : Son.
c.880s?
BC :
First
in Ctesias' unreliable list of nine kings, Arbaces of the
Amadai is said to destroy the Assyrian city of Ninevah at
this time. The Assyrians are becoming a dominant force in
their region, so this attack may be an attempt to subjugate
then and halt their expansion.
884
- 859 BC :
Ashurnasirpal
II : Son. Extended Assyria to the
Mediterranean.
884
- 870 BC :
Assyria
completes its conquest of much of Syria during this period.
Assyria also takes areas of Philistia and Urartu, and Carchemish
pays tribute in 882 BC, apparently becoming a vassal in 870
BC. A revolt of the Lullubian chiefs of what is now known
as Zamua which has been Assyrian territory for the past two
and-a-half centuries is put down. This would seem to be the
final hurrah for the Lullubi.
![](Assyria_Assurbanipal_II_01_full.jpg)
Ashurnasirpal
II undertook the expansion and recovery of Assyria following
general social collapse and a short dark page period between
about 1200-900 BC
859
- 824 BC :
Shalmaneser
III : Son. Killed Ahab of Samaria
in battle in 840s.
857
- 856 BC :
Fresh
tribute is received from Carchemish and is exacted from Sam'al.
In the following year, Bit Adini is conquered. Also likely
to occur in this century (although a precise date is unknown),
the neo-Hittite state of Hiyawa becomes an Assyrian client
state.
853
BC :
Assyria
fights the Battle of Qarqar against twelve Syrian and Canaanite
kings, including those of Ammon, Arvad, Byblos, Damas, Edom,
Egypt, Hamath, Kedar, and Samaria. The battle consists of
the largest known number of combatants to date, and is the
first historical mention of the Arabs from the southern deserts.
Despite claims to the contrary, the Assyrians are defeated,
since they do not press on to their nearest target, Hamath,
and do not resume their attacks on Hamath and Damas for about
six years. However, in the same year, Babylonia and the rich
area of southern Mesopotamia is taken, as is Gan Dunias.
![](Map850BC_full.jpg)
When
the Neo-Assyrian empire threatened the various city states
of southern Syria and Canaan around 853 BC, they united to
protect their joint territory - successfully it seems, at
least for a time
848
BC :
The
king of Samaria is killed. The following year, the city of
Hamath is conquered and local governors or vassal kings are
installed there.
c.843
BC :
The
early Persians or, perhaps more accurately, the Parsua, receive
their first mention in history. Shalmaneser III records their
existence on the Black Obelisk, which covers his campaign
of about this year. Their position is not precisely fixed
but 'Pasua' seems to lay in what is now Iranian Kurdistan
(immediately east of Kurdistan in northern Iraq), far to the
north of Persis and the heart of Persian settlement.
It may be the case that there are two (or perhaps even three)
distinctive groups of 'Parsua' at this time, primarily in
the Zagros Mountains to the east and south-east of the Assyrians.
This is apart from a larger body which is settling the land
immediately to the east of Elam (and focussed around the city
of Persis). Those groups in the Zagros seem to drop out of
the historical record, perhaps pushed south by the greater
numbers of the Medes or absorbed by them.
837
- 836 BC :
Shalmaneser
III records that he receives gifts from the twenty-four kings
of Tabal. The following year (836 BC, sometimes given as 835
BC) the Medes and Mannaeans are mentioned for the first time
in historical records when the king receives tribute from
the 'Amadai' after fighting wars against the tribes of the
Zagros Mountains. At this time Assyria is relatively weak,
and the rise of Urartu to the north threatens Assyria when
the new enemy also conquers the Zagros Mountains to the east.
832
- 827 BC :
Shalmaneser
III organises a series of five campaigns against Urartu in
a concerted attempt to halt its expansion. Rather than lead
the campaigns himself, as is the custom, he places his general,
Dayyan-Assur, in command. This causes a growing sense of discontent
among princes in Assyria that leads to rebellion in 827 BC.
Fighting for the right of succession, the confusion in the
heart of the empire lasts for seven years, including the first
three of the reign of Shamshi-Adad V, who gains the throne
with the help of Babylonia.
823
- 811 BC :
Shamshi-Adad
V : Son.
820
BC :
Although
the rebellion in Assyria has ended, the new king finds that
his country's dominance over Syria has entirely disappeared.
Even the city of Mari is being ruled by Assyrian governors
who claim royal descent for themselves. Worse still, an attack
against the Urartuans is repulsed, making this northern enemy
even stronger.
![](Assyria_ShamshiAddadV_01_full.jpg)
Shown
here is a stela which has been dated to the reign of Shamshi-Adad
V of Assyria and which was discovered at the site of Kalhu
in the mid-nineteenth century AD
811
- 783 BC :
Adad-Nirari
III : Son.
811
- 805 BC :
Shammu-ramat
/ Semiramis : Regent.
c.796
BC :
Damas
is attacked and tribute is forced from its weak king, Ben-Hadad
III. The Assyrian commander-in-chief, Shamshi-ilu, is perhaps
the most powerful man of his time, one of a small group of
almost equally powerful magnates - princes who govern Assyria
under the sovereignty of Adad-Nirari and his three immediate
successors. Making Kar-Shulmanu-Ashared his base, he campaigns
west of the Euphrates on his own behalf without reference
to the king.
783
- 773 BC :
Shalmaneser
IV : Son of Adad-nirari II.
773
- 755 BC :
Ashur-Dan
III : Son.
755
- 745 BC :
Ashur-nirari
V : Son of Adad-nirari II.
752
BC :
The
Aramaeans had brought a new method of writing with them, on
parchment, leather, or papyrus, and its success now sees their
language, Aramaic, supplant ancient Assyrian, although in
a heavily Akkadian-influenced manner. Aramaic is made the
second official language of the Assyrian empire.
745
- 727 BC :
Tiglath-Pileser
III : Son. Ruled Babylonia direct
(729-727 BC).
745
BC :
Tiglath-Pileser's ascension to the throne marks a change in
how the empire is governed. He rules in a far more direct
fashion than any other Assyrian king of this century, taking
personal command of the various campaigns and removing the
princes who had taken so much authority upon themselves. The
indirect governance of Kar-Shulmanu-Ashared as a base for
Shamshi-ilu, the all-but independent Assyrian king of the
west, is also ended.
744
BC :
The
Medes to the west of the Gizilbunda Mountains (part of the
Zagros range) have enjoyed a respite in the past few years.
Now a new Assyrian advance begins when the king invades Parsuai
and turns it into an Assyrian province (also known as Nikur,
after its capital). This refers to Parsua, but not those of
southern Iran. This is one of the northern groups which had
settled in the Zagros Mountains. Nikur may not be too far
to the west from the later city of Ecbatana.
Possibly in the same year the Assyrians make a raid farther
to the east, reaching Arazias, and a Median fortress called
Zakruti. Tiglath-Pileser demands that in the whole country
of the mighty Medes as far as Mount Bikni (possibly Mount
Demavend close to modern Tehran), the 'lords of townships'
should pay him regular tribute of nine metric tons of lapis
lazuli and fifteen tons of bronze artefacts, an impossible
order to fulfil.
743
- 740 BC :
Tiglath-Pileser III besieges Arpad for three years as it is
an ally of Urartu. Once captured, the city is destroyed and
its inhabitants are massacred. Arpad is never repopulated.
It is probably around this period that the Urartuans lose
their domination of the northern part of Syria (with the result
that rulers of minor states there are forced back into Assyrian
vassal status, such as Gamgum).
Additionally,
Ammon is made a vassal around this time and Tabal is attacked.
Tabal is still divided into several independent principalities,
but all of them are sizeable enough to merit the use of the
title 'king' for their rulers even though Assyrian vocabulary
has now extended beyond using it for every ruler they meet.
738
BC :
The
city of Byblos pays tribute to Assyria, and Tiglath-Pileser
campaigns in Sam'al against a rebellion there. He also captures
Samaria and Damas and makes them vassal cities.
![](Assyria_TiglathPileserIII_01_full.jpg)
Tiglath-Pileser
III dominated the Levantine city states during the later years
of the eighth century BC, terminating the kingdom of Samaria
and, shown here, with his foot on the shoulder of Hanunu of
the Philistine city of Gaza, a gesture of dominance in the
face of Hanunu's crouched submission
734
- 732 BC :
In
the 730s BC, Midas of Phrygia conquers several fortresses
in the west of the state of Hiyawa (Que). The act seems to
go unpunished by the Assyrians who are the overlords of Hiyawa,
possibly because Tiglath-Pileser III is heavily involved in
campaigns in Syria. This may be one of the earliest incidents
to involve Midas as a significant nuisance factor for Assyria.
Between 734-732 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III marches an army into
Syria and the Levant and over the next two years he re-conquers
all the rebellious states there. The Samarian city of Hazor
is captured in 733 BC, as is the kingdom of Judah, and Damas
is captured and destroyed in 732 BC. Around two years later,
Moab is made a vassal.
727
- 722 BC :
Shalmaneser
V : Son. Ruled Babylonia direct.
c.726
- 720 BC :
The last king of Hiyawa is Warikas (known in Assyrian as Urikki).
Previously a loyal servant of the empire, he throws off the
shackles of Assyrian domination. The result is Assyrian invasion,
the defeat of Hiyawa and the removal of its king, and its
incorporation into the empire as a province named Que. The
date of this event is uncertain, and it may be that several
years elapse from the rebellion of Warikas to the fateful
invasion. The events take place either during the poorly documented
reign of Shalmaneser V or at the very start of the reign of
Sargon II.
724
- 722 BC :
Two
years after conquering Edom, Shalmaneser V is the last name
on the Assyrian King List, which is composed around
this time. He is dethroned by a coup d'etat headed
by Sargon II.
Sargonid
Dynasty :
722 - 609 BC :
The
usurping Sargonids formed the last great dynasty of Assyrian
rulers. They extended the empire to its greatest extent; from
the Caspian Sea to Cyprus, and from Anatolia to Egypt. Their
systematically trained and equipped armies proved almost irresistible
to their opponents. Following Sargon's seizure of the throne,
the Assyrians were all-powerful for up to a century, fighting
everyone and everything in their way. That aggressiveness
proved to be their undoing, however. By the middle of the
seventh century they had worn themselves out with constant
wars of aggression. Not at all coincidentally, dating from
649 BC is more uncertain, as increasing discord and chaos
hit the empire. Egypt was a conquest too far, the protectorate
that was Babylon was a running sore, and Elam needed constant
reminders of who was in charge. Campaigning in the Zagros
Mountains became an impossibility, and it was here that new
arrivals, the Medes, were building a power base.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Wayne McCleese,
from Europe Before History, Kristian Kristiansen, from The
History of Esarhaddon (Son of Sennacherib) King of Assyria,
BC 681-688, Ernest A Budge, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook
(1983), from Unger's Bible Dictionary, Merrill F Unger (1957),
from Easton's Bible Dictionary, Matthew George Easton (1897),
and from External Links: Metropolitan Museum of Art in New
York, USA, and Encyclopaedia Britannica.)
722
- 705 BC :
Sargon
II / Sharru-kîn II : (Sargon
I being the king of Akkad.) Killed trying to regain Tabal.
722
- 720 BC
:
Sargon
destroys and subsumes Israel (Samaria), Moab, Ammon, Philistia,
and the Meunites (south-west of Judah), conquers Alashiya,
and suppresses a rebellion in Hamath. He also continues the
Assyrian policy of mass relocations of subjugated people by
forcing the Hebrews out of Israel. The campaign against Samaria
is actually handled by his son, Sennacherib, with a co-regency
being suspected.
![](Assyria_SargonII_01_full.jpg)
Sargon
II usurped the Assyrian throne, seizing it from the last of
the Ashur-Rabi monarchs, but he brought with him Assyrian
resurgence and a drive to expand the empire
720
BC :
While attempting to attack Elam, Sargon is defeated by the
Elamites and Babylonians near Der. It seems likely that another
attack is mounted in 713 BC, as Sargon is surprised by a rebellion
in Tabal while his attention is focussed on Elamite lands.
c.717
BC :
Assyria places one of its own people on the throne of Carchemish.
715
BC :
Despite sharing culinary and aesthetic tastes, Assyria and
Phrygia are on bad terms. Although there are no relevant sources
prior to Sargon's reign, his own inscriptions describe Midas
of Phrygia as having long been a thorn in the empire's side,
having never submitted to Sargon's predecessors and refusing
diplomatic contacts. Now, Sargon's army conquers some fortresses
in western Que that Midas of Phrygia had taken 'very long
ago', indicating that Midas must have been in power for some
time. This campaign results in an Assyrian foray deep into
Phrygia but does not stop Midas from his continuing intervention
in Que and Tabal.
714
- 713 BC :
Much to Sargon's shock, while the main Assyrian army is occupied
in the east, probably in Elamite lands, Ambaris of Tabal allies
himself with Midas of Phrygia and Rusa of Urartu as well as
the local Tabalean rulers in an attempt to invade Que. Sargon
reacts quickly, invading Tabal and capturing Ambaris, his
family and the nobles of his country, all of whom are taken
to Assyria. Tabal is annexed as an Assyrian province. Sargon
is noted for using Cimmerians within his army on this campaign,
possibly for their knowledge of the Urartuan hills as much
as their ability as mounted warriors. Cimmerians have been
raiding into Mesopotamia for decades.
![](Cimmerians_Warriors01_full.jpg)
This
image shows Cimmerians battling early Greeks - prior to the
advent of accepted 'Classical' Greece - with the mounted Cimmerians
warriors apparently being accompanied by their dogs
In
the same year, 713 BC, Sargon receives the submission of forty-five
Median city chiefs, and he claims to have i9ncorporated thirty-four
districts of the Medes in his realm. Fortified cities have
already begun to appear in strategic locations in the Zagros
Mountains, built by Assyria which now reduces the region to
three provinces in an attempt to control the trade route along
the Khorasan road. Assyria's political control is incomplete,
and various small groups of Medians remain independent. The
Medes are already starting to absorb the non-Iranian peoples
in the upper valleys of the Zagros.
712
BC :
The
capital city of the neo-Hittite state of Kummuhu is sacked
by Sargon, ending that state's prosperity.
711
BC :
The creation of the province of Tabal has only further escalated
the situation and Assyria now finds itself at war with assorted
Tabalean principalities and Phrygia, and moreover increasingly
on the losing side. Despite huge investments in the protection
of the new border, including the fortification of Til-Garimmu
(modern Gürün) and the construction of the so-called Cappadocian
Wall, the province of Tabal is now lost, never to be retaken.
710
- 705 BC :
Thwarted
in Anatolia, Sargon rules Babylonia direct, dispensing with
the sub-kings there. Assyria also conquers Cyprus (thanks
to a request by the king of Tyre) and Moab, Assyrian governors
replace local dynasties in Carchemish and Damas, and Gamgum
is conquered at some point in Sargon's reign. Sargon dies
on the battlefield while attempting to reconquer Tabal. Not
only does the attempt fail but Sargon's body cannot be recovered
for burial.
705
- 681 BC :
Sennacherib
/ Sin-ahhe-eriba : Killed
by sons for sacking Babylon in 689 BC.
704
- 701 BC :
With the death of Sargon, many of the former subject states
rebel, especially Chaldaeans and neighbouring groups. Amongst
the rebels are listed the Hagaranu (possibly the descendants
of Hagar, the mother of Ismael), the Nabatu (very possibly
the descendants of Nebayoth, the eldest son of the same Ismael),
and the Kedarites (descendants of Ismael's second son). According
to the records, these tribes flee from Assyria into the Arabian
Desert and cannot be conquered. The use of 'tribes' here may
be misleading. The Kedarite kingdom at least is already in
place, so these may be captured and transported slave groups
instead. With the recapture of Babylon a priority, it takes
the Assyrians until 701 BC to get around to quelling similar
rebellions in Judah and the Phoenician states.
692/691
BC :
Sennacherib fights his eighth campaign against a confederation
from the east. He is confronted by Elam, along with Babylon,
Anshan, Ellipi (roughly located in the Luristan region immediately
to the west of Elam), and the Parsua or Parsuash (Persians).
Despite fighting the Battle of Halule on the Tigris (suggesting
a march by the allies towards the heart of Assyrian-dominated
territory), Sennacherib is unable to gain a decisive victory.
689
- 669 BC :
Two years after fighting an indecisive battle against Elam
and devastating Babylon, Assyria takes direct control of Babylonia
in 689 BC. In 676 BC all of Phoenicia is also conquered, including
the major cities of Arvad, Biruta, Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre.
681
- 669 BC :
Esarhaddon
/ Ashur-aha-iddin : Son.
679
BC :
Esarhaddon conducts a campaign against the Cimmerians. He
defeats them and their leader, Teuspa, in the region of Hubusna
(probably Hupisna-Cybistra), but the area is not pacified.
In the same year Esarhaddon's troops also fight a war in Hilakku
(Khilakku), and a few years later they punish the Anatolian
prince of Kundu (Cyinda) and Sissu (Sisium, modern Sis), who
has allied himself with Phoenician rebels against Assyrian
rule. The regions to the north of the Cilician plain repeatedly
cause trouble for Assyria.
It
would seem to be during this period that Esarhaddon ends local
rule in at least one of his subject cities - Yadiya-Sam'al
- presumably because a loyal governor is easier to manage
than a king with thoughts of his own.
By
this time, the non-Iranian peoples of the upper valleys of
the Zagros are disappearing under progressive absorption by
the dominant Medes. Small kingdoms such as Ellipi and Harhar
are disappearing from the historical record. Even the names
of petty rulers who retain independence show a progressive
process of medisation.
669
BC :
Upon the death of Esarhaddon, the Assyrian empire goes to
his son, Ashurbanipal. His other son, Shamash-shumi-ukin,
rules Babylon as a semi-independent kingdom for his lifetime.
![](Assyria_Tablet01_full.jpg)
Ancient
Mesopotamian names were always meaningful, such as that of
Esarhaddon, 'The- god-Ashur-has-given-a-brother', and were
therefore translatable into other languages, as with this
tablet, which records many exotic, non-Akkadian names in Akkadian
669
- 627 BC :
Ashurbanipal
/ Ashur-ban-aplu : Son.
Died 627 BC.
664
- 663 BC :
With
the sacking of Thebes, the Assyrians complete their conquest
of Egypt, making it a vassal state with subject pharaohs.
Fighting is recorded against the 'Nabaiateans', with the likelihood
that Kedar is also involved.
653
BC :
The Cimmerian king, Tugdamme, begins to threaten the borders
of the powerful Assyrian empire during the reign of Ashurbanipal.
Assyrian inscriptions record him as being 'King of the Saka
and Qutium' (Sakas in this case being Scythians). Assyrian
inscriptions also refer to Tugdamme as 'Sar Kissati' which
translates as 'King of Kish' or 'King of the World'. Kish
is an ancient and highly important city state in southern
Mesopotamia, which suggests that Tugdamme now rules a vast
area of land to the east and south of the Assyrians.
652
BC :
One
serious invasion of Anatolia by Cimmerians has already been
repulsed, with the states or regions of Hilakku, Lydia, and
Tabal requesting help from Assyria. Now the Cimmerians return
(leader unknown). King Gyges of Lydia is killed during a second
attack. His capital of Sardis is captured, all except the
citadel which manages to hold out. The fact that it does suggests
either that either the Cimmerians do not hang around for long
after their victory or that (as before) they are moved along
by an Assyrian force. Excavations at the site of Sardis later
discover a destruction layer that appears to be associated
with this event.
649
BC :
After his brother rebels in 652 BC, Ashurbanipal besieges
Babylon, bringing it back into the empire. Rebellions in support
of Babylon by the Kedarites and Nabatu are also put down,
possibly prior to Babylon's recapture. Ashurbanipal has already
proven himself to be not only a hunter, but also a warrior,
taking great pride in being able to read and write at a time
when usually only scribes mastered the intricacies of cuneiform
writing. He has amassed a huge library of clay tablets, which
his agents have collected from throughout the empire to store
in the great library in Babylonia.
644
- c.620 BC :
After
conquering Kedar, the Assyrians devastate Elam, to all intents
and purposes ending one of the longest-surviving kingdoms.
By around 620 BC, with Assyria rapidly weakening, Media takes
control of the region.
631
- 627 BC :
Ashurbanipal
has twin sons, and he appoints Ashur-etil-ilani as his successor.
The other twin, Sin-shar-ishkun, does not recognise this and
so begins a civil war that lasts until he gains the throne.
This proves divisive for Assyria, and its control over the
Levant slips by 630 BC, while the vassal ruler in Babylonia
disappears in 627 BC.
631
- 627 BC :
Ashur-etil-ilani
: Twin son. Forced to
withdraw to west in 626. Died 621?
627
- 612 BC :
Sin-shar-ishkun
: Twin brother. Did
not recognise his brother's rule.
627
- 626 BC
:
The
Babylonians revolt against Assyrian control, something which
spirals out of all control and threatens the very heartland
of Assyria. The empire also loses control of Amrit, on the
Mediterranean coast.
626
BC :
Sin-shumu-lishir
: Rival in Babylonia.
616
- 614 BC :
Assyria is invaded by the Babylonia in 616 BC, and two years
later, Ashur falls to the Medes. The Egyptians also begin
a two year battle to free themselves from Assyrian rule.
612
BC :
The
empire collapses with the fall of Kalakh and Ninevah to Media
and Babylonia, supported by Egypt and groups such as the Scythians,
who divide the spoils between them. Sin-shar-ishkun dies in
his burning palace in Babylonia, where Ashurbanipal's great
library crashes into the room below, with many of the baked
clay tablets surviving to be discovered by later archaeologists.
The commander of the Assyrian western army, based in the northern
Syrian city of Harran, claims the crown and names himself
after the founder of the empire.
612
- 609 BC :
Ashur-uballit
II : Last
king.
610
BC :
Harran
is conquered, but not completely destroyed.
609
BC :
The
remaining Assyrians surrender. The former empire's heartland
loses its urban characteristics and the population reside
in small settlements on top of massive mounds. The king of
Babylonia is acknowledged as the new master.
Persian
Satraps of Athura (Asura / Assyria) :
Conquered
by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, the empire of Babylonia was
added to the Persian empire, which territory included its
northern possession, the former heartland of the Assyrian
empire. Under the Persians this region was formed into a great
satrapy known as Athura (A?ura in Old Persian, a development
of the older Akkadian Aššur, one of the four main
cities of the former empire). This was a name which survived
many centuries after the fall of the former empire itself.
Strabo interpreted it as Atouria.
As
can be seen, the main satrapy of Athura belonged to the great
satrapy of Babirush (Babylonia), although there exist Persian
royal inscriptions that label it a dahyu, or 'country, province'.
Nevertheless, this can also be taken to mean 'satrapy' (see
Encyclopaedia Iranica for a full breakdown and rationalisation).
Thanks to its close association with Babylonia, the two names
- Athura and Babylonia - were used almost synonymously (certainly
by Herodotus and Strabo) making it hard to differentiate between
them. Babylon's rank during the Achaemenid period (and beyond)
and the status of officials who were installed there does
suggest, though, that Babylonia was the superior satrapy.
On the occasion of the rebellion of Megabyzus in Ebir-nari
(Syria), the satrap of Babylonia was responsible for its suppression,
which alone proves its higher hierarchical rank, as does the
fact that Alexander the Great settled matters in Babylonia
that related to Assyria. It was also Strabo who reported (accurately)
that Athura consisted of (old) Assyria along with Khilakku,
Syria, and Phoenicia. Therefore Megabyzus and other holders
of his office were satraps of all of these, even if they had
their own, lesser satraps.
The
central minor satrapy of Athura, the core territory of the
main satrapy, was apparently less heavily populated than in
the days of its own empire. The four main cities had lower
population levels, with smaller agrarian settlements being
preferred since the chaos of the collapse between 627-609
BC. The satrapy has fairly clear boundaries though. It included
Mesopotamia to the north of the bottleneck above Babylonia
itself (with the 'bottleneck' being located in the vicinity
of modern Baghdad), while in the west it reached the Arabian
Desert. To the north-west the Euphrates separated Assyria
from Cappadocia-beside-the-Taurus (Khilakku) and Syria. The
border with Armina was, in its middle section, formed by the
Tigris and the Centrites/Botan Çayi. To the east, the
Lycus/Great Zab and the Tigris constituted the border opposite
Arbelitis and Sittacene.
Later
Syria seems to have been established as a satrapy in its own
right under the name of Ebimari or Ebir-nari (Babylonian)
or Abar-Nahra (Aramaic-Persian) - 'beyond the river [Euphrates]'.
Once this had been stripped away from Athura, thereby lessening
Babylonia's own importance, the post of Babylonian satrap
was poorly attested - and this is even more so the case with
Athura. Where the few satraps are known, the Old Persian names
are shown first, followed by Greek and other various interpretations.
Most satraps of Mesopotamia were probably also satraps of
Athura, but as this is rarely shown in the available records
their names have not been included here.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Persian
Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin,
1996), from the Cyropaedia, Xenophon of Athens, from The Cambridge
Ancient History, John Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis,
& M Ostwald (Eds), from Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity
to the Modern Era, Daniel T Potts, from Alexander the Great,
Krzysztof Nawotka (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009), and
from External Links: Encyclopaedia Iranica, Dahyu (Encyclopaedia
Iranica), and the Nabonidus Chronicle, contained within Assyrian
and Babylonian Chronicles, A K Grayson (Translation, 1975
& 2000, and now available via Livius in an improved version).)
539
- 537? BC :
?
: Babylonian satrap of Mesopotamia, Ebir-nāri,
& Phoenicia.
539
BC :
Despite
the fall of Babylon itself to the Persians, it is entirely
possible that pockets of resistance remain - or at least areas
in which Persian overlordship is tacitly acknowledged while
local rule is maintained on a semi-independent basis, at least
for a time.
![](Persia_BabylonPalace01_full.jpg)
This
Achaemenid (Persian empire) palace decoration stood in the
city of Babylon and was transported to Berlin upon being rediscovered
by archaeologists in the twentieth century
c.484
- 482 BC :
Although
any records to prove it have not survived, it would seem to
be in this period, between about 490-482 BC, in which Ebir-nāri
is created a satrapy in its own right, removing it from the
administration of Babirush (Babylonia). The cause may well
be the revolt in Babylonia which arises shortly after a greater
revolt in Egypt. In fact tablets from Babylonia seem to show
evidence of two risings by claimants to the Babylonian throne.
The first is a minor affair, but the second, in 482 BC, seems
more serious.
After that, Xerxes removes 'King of Babylonia' from his own
titles and Babylonia is no longer a kingdom, merely a province
of the Persian empire. The satraps in Syria now show a tendency
to be hereditary, in the fashion of many of the posts in Anatolia
from around this point onwards, but with less success at forming
a single commanding dynasty. Athura, meanwhile, remains stubbornly
silent on its current position.
![](Babylon_City02_full.jpg)
Babylon
was forever diminished by its roles in two major uprisings
in the fifth century BC and by its subsequent demotion in
importance - even the arrival of the Greeks did not revive
its fortunes
407
& 402 BC :
Bēlsunu
/ Bel-shunu / Belesys : Satrap of
Athura, Ebir-nāri, & Phoenicia.
350
BC :
Various rebellions have been taking place in the past decade,
notably one by Sidon and in 350 BC yet another by Cyprus.
Now there is also an attempt to re-establish Assyria, although
it ends in failure and the castration of four hundred Assyrian
leaders as punishment by its Persian rulers.
346
BC :
In tandem with Satrap Bēlsunu of Ebir-nāri, Mazaeus
- still satrap of Khilakku - leads fresh contingents of Greek
mercenaries to put down the revolt in the Levant. Phoenicia
is attacked first, but both satraps are repulsed. The Persian
king himself is forced to follow up with a more direct intervention.
c.345
- 333 BC :
Mazaeus / Mazaios / Mazdai : Satrap of Athura. Promoted
from Khilakku.
? - 333 BC :
Arsames? : Satrap of Athura, Ebir-nāri, Khilakku
& Phoenicia. Killed.
333
- 332 BC :
In
334 BC Alexander of Macedon launches his campaign into the
Persian empire by crossing the Dardanelles. Much of Anatolia
falls by 333 BC and Alexander proceeds into Syria during 333-332
BC to receive the submission of Ebir-nāri, which also
gains him Harran, Judah, and Phoenicia (principally Byblos
and Sidon, with Tyre holding out until it can be taken by
force).
![](Persia_DariusIII_01_full.jpg)
Alexander
defeated the Persian king Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela
in Mesopotamia in 331 BC, with the victory giving him control
of all the lands to the west of Iran
Athura,
Gaza, and Mudrāya (Egypt) also capitulate (not without
a struggle in Gaza's case). Mazaeus of Athura initially plays
his part by opposing Alexander, but he eventually surrenders,
and Alexander makes him satrap of Mesopotamia (effectively
Babirush and Athura). Then Alexander goes on to seize Babylon
itself, along with Susa and, having gathered intelligence
on Persis, he soon captures that too. Most administrative
posts are retained under the Greek empire, including some
of those in Mesopotamia.
Argead
Dynasty in Athura (Assyria) :
The
Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and
his two successors before the kingdom broke up into several
Hellenic sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central
and eastern Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the
region until Alexander's death in 323 BC and the subsequent
regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's successors
held no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals
who really held control of Alexander's empire. Following that
latter period and during the course of several wars, Babylonia
and Athura were largely left in the hands of the Seleucid
empire from 305 BC.
Under
the Persians, the main satrapy of Athura (the heartland of
the former Assyrian empire) had belonged to the great satrapy
of Babirush (Babylonia). Thanks to Athura's close association
with Babylonia the two names were used almost synonymously
(certainly by Herodotus and Strabo). Babylon's rank during
the Achaemenid period (and beyond) and the status of officials
who were installed there suggests that Babylonia was the superior
great satrapy, while even Alexander the Great chose Babylonia
in which to settle matters that related to Athura.
Athura
itself had apparently returned to being a more agrarian society
since the great catastrophe of the old empire's collapse between
627-609 BC. The four main cities had lower population levels,
with smaller agrarian settlements being preferred (although
the city of Assur had become prosperous and productive again).
It was still able to supply capable professional soldiers
to the Achaemenids though, and would continue to do so under
the Argeads and Seleucids. As a satrapy its territory covered
Mesopotamia to the north of the bottleneck above Babylonia
itself (with the 'bottleneck' being located in the vicinity
of modern Baghdad), while in the west it reached the Arabian
Desert. To the north-west the Euphrates separated Assyria
from Cappadocia-beside-the-Taurus (Cilicia) and Syria. The
border with Armenia was, in its middle section, formed by
the Tigris and the Centrites/Botan Çayi. To the east,
the Lycus/Great Zab and the Tigris constituted the border
opposite the cities and territories of Arbela (the modern
Iraqi city of Erbil in Kurdistan) and Sittace which lay to
the east of Babylon itself.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Jewish
War & Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from The Persian
Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin,
1996), and from External Links: Encyclopædia Britannica,
and Diodorus of Sicily at the Library of World History (dead
link), and The Government of Syria under Alexander the Great,
A B Bosworth (The Classical Quarterly Vol 24, No 1, May, 1974,
pp 46-64, Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical
Association (available at JSTOR)), and Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
332
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : King of Macedonia. Conquered
Persia.
323 - 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded half-brother
of Alexander the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander
the Great and Roxana.
332
- 331? BC :
Mazaeus
/ Mazaios / Mazdai : Satrap of Babylonia. Former
Persian satrap of Athura. Died.
331
BC :
With
a Samaritan insurgency dealt with, Syria seems to be securely
under Macedonian Greek control. From around this point onwards
it seems to revert to a single satrapal territory with only
one incumbent. The post is given to Menes at the end of 331
BC who also commands a rather vast swathe of neighbouring
territory, as does Mazaeus in Babylonia and, presumably, Athura,
until that is also transferred to Menes.
![](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map,
with them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and
across the vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain
range
331
- 323? BC :
Menes
: Satrap of Athura, Cilicia, Phoenicia, & Syria.
329
BC :
The appointment
of Menes (probably the son of Dionysius who had been raised
to the circle of Alexander's 'Bodyguards' in 333 BC - a major
distinction which would mark him out as a commanding figure)
in such a satrapal role over so much territory has been called
into question by scholars. He has even been labelled as nothing
more than a communications officer despite scholars linking
him the the 'Bodyguards' role.
329
- 328? BC :
?
: Unnamed deputy or stand-in?
Either
way, Menes is not in direct command of Syria in 329 BC, but
around 332 BC the satrap of Cilicia, Balacrus, is killed in
battle and Menes may be required there as well as in Syria
as a matter of urgent expediency, while Alexander's crossing
of the Euphrates is imminent. The fact that Menes is also
in Zariaspa in Bactria in 329 BC with his own levy of troops
makes it clear that his appointment is largely to retain peaceful
control without launching any unnecessary offensives against
remaining pockets of Persian resistance while raising as many
recruits as possible for Alexander's drive eastwards. However,
records regarding Syria now fall silent until the death of
Alexander, so Menes may well retain his position until then
once he has returned from Bactria. If that is the case then
it has to be presumed that the same is true for Athura.
![](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive
Wars of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire
would be divided
323
BC :
Following
Alexander's death, between 320-305 BC Babylonia is governed
as a satrapy, before being taken by Seleucus to form the capital
of the Seleucid empire. Athura's fate is the same, becoming
a northern border region of the empire, although there is
barely any mention of it at all in this period.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/
MesopotamiaAssyria.htm
#Kings%20in%20Tents