HITTITES
/ HATTI (KHETA)
Hittites / Hatti (Kheta) (South Indo-Europeans) :
The
Hittites were an Indo-European people who emerged into history circa
1800 BC, by which time they were in the process of conquering a
new home for themselves. They had arrived in Anatolia as part of
the South Indo-European group of at least three main divisions,
which eventually emerged into history as the Palaic-speaking Pala,
the Hittites, and the Luwians.
Their
pre-Anatolian-speaking ancestors had divided from the main collective
of Indo-Europeans by 3500 BC, and perhaps up to a millennium earlier.
They most likely headed down through the Caucuses by following one
of the coastal routes, either along the eastern coast of the Black
Sea or the western coast of the Caspian Sea. From there, following
what may have been a period of cultural gestation in the southern
Caucuses region, the Hittite group is presumed to have headed due
west towards central Anatolia and the small city states of the Hatti.
Once there they began fighting the Hatti people for dominance, revealing
a level of militancy and possibly superior fighting numbers which
made conquest preferable to subservience.
The
Hittites must be clearly distinguished from the indigenous Hatti,
the non-Indo-European people who already inhabited the region and
who were probably direct descendants of the early farmer cultures
in the region. They were conquered by the Hittites, who to all intents
replaced them in their homeland, taking on their civilisation, gods,
way of life, and elements of their language too (see feature link,
right, for an examination of the origins of the Hittites). That
process was not instantaneous though. Early Hittite kings bear what
seem to be indigenous Anatolian names, hinting at a level of integration
or temporary reverse dominance.
The
early Hittites initially referred to themselves as Neshites (or
Nessites, and their language as nešili), after the city of
Kanesh which they conquered in the early eighteenth century BC.
They were referred to as Hatti by their neighbours throughout their
existence as a nation, and their state as 'The Land of the City
of Hattusa', but this was largely down to their neighbours not being
willing to distinguish between the indigenous Hatti and their conquerors.
Egypt knew their land as Kheta (seemingly the same name but with
a heavier accent). The Hittites are also mentioned in the King James
Bible, translating their name as 'Children of Heth', the son of
Canaan. Equating the historical Hittites or the later neo-Hittite
states with the Old Testament's Hittites is still a matter of contention,
even though the use of the Biblical name to refer to the historical
Hittites is now commonplace.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from The Horse The Wheel and Language: How Bronze Age Riders from
the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, David W Anthony, from
Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the
Dawn of History, William J Hamblin (Routledge, 2006), from Hittite
Diplomatic Texts, Gary Beckman (Second Ed, Scholars Press, Atlanta,
1999), from The Kingdom of the Hittites, Trevor Bryce (1998), from
The Hittites, O R Gurney (1991), from The Hittites, J G Macqueen
(1996), from Hittite Prayers, Itamar Singer (Scholars Press, Atlanta,
2002), and from External Links: Indo-European Chronology - Countries
and Peoples, and Indo-European Etymological Dictionary, J Pokorny,
and A Brief History of Hattusha/Bogazköy (from Archive.today),
and Proclamation of Anittas (Hittite Online, Linguistics Research
Center, University of Texas at Austin), and Anatolian Conference
abstracts, Emory University, and Linguistics Research Center (University
of Texas at Austin), and The historical geography of north-central
Anatolia in the Hittite period: texts and archaeology in concert,
Roger Matthews & Claudia Glatz (Anatolian Studies Vol 59, 2009,
pp 51-72, available via JSTOR), and The great king Zuzu of Alahzina
,the Goddess Allani and the Stormgods of Kussara and Alala?, Joost
Basweiler (available via Academia.edu).)
c.2300
BC :
Some time after this point, Luwian-speakers settle in Anatolia,
just to the south of the (probably indigenous) Hatti. The Luwians
are Indo-Europeans of the South Indo-European group - generally
agreed to have been the first to migrate out of the original Indo-European
homeland to the north of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. The route
they have taken in their migration is open to interpretation (and
guesswork!), but a route through the Caucuses seems most likely,
followed by a more easterly route around the eastern shores of the
Caspian Sea. The Luwians form two major regional states, Arzawa
and Kizzuwatna.
This
map attempts to illustrate in basic terms the separate paths taken
by the Luwians, Hittites, and Pala during their westwards migration
and their progress from proto-Anatolians to kingdom-builders
Around
the same time, 'barbarians from the north' are causing problems
in cities within Syria, likely to be Luwians testing their defences
(see feature link for more on early Syria). The Hittites, however,
make no such appearance in written records for a further five hundred
years or so.
During this time they most likely remain in whatever grazing lands
their cattle occupy to the south of the Caucus Mountains. Why they
remain behind for so long when the Luwians have found a new home
is unknown. Why they begin to move around the end of the nineteenth
century BC so that they arrive in central Anatolia shortly after
the beginning of the eighteenth century BC is equally unknown. Population
increase and the need for fresh grazing land may be the best reasons.
Or perhaps they are Luwians themselves, changed by association with
the Hatti.
early
18th cent BC :
Pithana
/ Pitkhana / Bithana : Tribal leader. Became king of Hatti
Kussara and then Kanesh.
Pithana, the earliest-documented Hittite ruler, and his son rule
their newly conquered domain in Anatolia from the unlocated city
of Kussara. Pithana later conquers the Hatti city of Kanesh, centre
of the Assyrian trading colonies in Anatolia, perhaps moving his
capital there (and probably ending Assyrian trading there too).
Neither Pithana nor Anitta bear Indo-European names, suggesting
a degree of intermingling between the Indo-European Hittites and
their immediate native Anatolian neighbours at some point in the
last few centuries. Have the Hittites been integrating themselves
into eastern Hatti territory over the course of several generations,
only now to make a grab for power? Pithana is the first of what
is sometimes referred to in modern texts as the 'Kussaran clan',
the rulers of Kussara down to Tudhaliya I.
mid-18th
cent BC
Anitta / Anittas : Son. King of Kussara & Kanesh.
At the very start of his reign Anitta defeats Piyusti, king of Hatti.
A second battle at the city of Salampa sees Piyusti defeated again.
He retreats and fortifies his capital at Hattousha (Hattusa), but
Anitta storms and conquers it after famine has weakened the defenders.
Anitta also attacks the city of Zalpa, recapturing the Kaneshan
god and ending the threat from the north.
Next,
Anitta turns his attention southwards and defeats the city of Salatiwara
in two campaigns (which lies on a road connecting the kingdoms of
Wahsusana and Purushanda). In the final stage of his campaigns,
Anitta marches against the important city of Purushanda and the
king surrenders without offering battle.
![The city of Hattusa](Hittite_Hattusa01_full.jpg)
The
city of Hattusa seen from the southern fortifications, with the
ruins of the huge temple of the storm god in the centre
With these victories he brings the entire valley of the River Kizil
Irmak up to its mouth on the Black Sea under Hittite control. In
composing a text celebrating the victory - the 'Proclamation of
Anitta' (CTH 1) - Anitta creates the first Hittite inscriptions
and the earliest-known Indo-European writings. Anitta's kingdom
at Kussara collapses soon after his death, but his descendants remain
based there for another century.
Peruwa
: Son. At Kussara? May never have become king.
Zuzzu / Zuzu : Last ruler at Kanesh. 'Great King'.
Kanesh is destroyed around this time by a king of Salatiwara, perhaps
at the end of Zuzzu's reign as 'great king' of Kanesh. Zuzzu's name,
like those of his ancestors, Pithana and Anitta, is not Indo-European.
It seems to be an indigenous Anatolian name instead, showing either
that the Hittites have been following non-Hittite leaders or that
early Hittite and Hattian society has become integrated. Later Hittite
names, though, are largely Indo-European.
This
point represents the definitive end of the Assyrian trading colonies,
with trade routes thoroughly disrupted by the recent chaos. Kanesh
fades completely as the Hittites withdraw to Kussara, building a
new state which becomes far more powerful during the 'Old Empire'
period.
Old
Hittite Empire :
c.1740 - 1500 BC
Following their initial defeat of the Hatti, and a century of obscurity
as they settled into their new role as masters of eastern Anatolia,
the Hittites bounced back to quickly centralise power and create
a state of their own. They were culturally influenced by the Hurrians
on their south-eastern border during this period, with several rulers
bearing Hurrian names and Hurrian Vedic gods being worshipped (for
instance at Yazilikaya). As in Egypt, their king was both the supreme
judge and high priest. They also borrowed a large number of Hattic
words into their language, especially references to the trappings
of power, such as throne, lord, king, queen, palace, priest, heir-apparent,
and many others. Both groups were of Indo-European descent, but
from groups that had been divided from one another for over two
thousand years, leaving plenty of time for separate lines of development
and new ideas to be adopted.
In the second half of the seventeenth century BC, Hattusili I founded
a new capital at Hattousha (Hattusa - modern Boğazkale in Turkey),
which would remain the centre of the empire until its fall. While
the Hittites destroyed the Amorite Old Babylonian empire, they also
absorbed much of Mesopotamian culture, and were later responsible
for disseminating it throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Although
originally speakers of proto-Anatolian and its daughter language,
Hittite, their later language must have been as greatly enriched
and altered by their experiences as modern English has been by its
own experiences with Danes, French Normans, Indian empire, and American
settlements.
Three different dating theories are available for the New Hittites.
The one used here matches most closely with the 'middle list', the
others adding ten or twenty years onto these dates or taking roughly
twenty years away from them. One or two gaps here are plugged from
other sources. The uncertainties surrounding Hittite dating are
still very great, so no one list can be said to be definitive. Despite
their establishment of one of the great late second millennium BC
empires, the surviving written record for the Hittites could do
with a great deal of expansion.
All names can also be spelled to end with an 's' which would usually
be pronounced with an 'sh' sound. Following the collapse of the
earlier Hittite kingdom of Kussara, little is known about them until
Hattusili I created the Old Hittite empire.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Horse The Wheel and Language: How Bronze Age Riders from
the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, David W Anthony,
from Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors
at the Dawn of History, William J Hamblin (Routledge, 2006),
from Hittite Diplomatic Texts, Gary Beckman (Second Ed, Scholars
Press, Atlanta, 1999), from The Kingdom of the Hittites,
Trevor Bryce (1998), from The Hittites, O R Gurney (1991),
from The Hittites, J G Macqueen (1996), from Hittite Prayers,
Itamar Singer (Scholars Press, Atlanta, 2002), and from External
Links: A Brief History of Hattusha/Boğazköy (Archive.today),
and Who were the Kaška?, Itamar Singer (The Argonautica and World
Culture II, Phasis: Greek and Roman Studies, Vol 10 (II),
Rismag Gordeziani (Editor-in-chief, Tbilisi, 2007, available as
a PDF - click or tap on link to download or access it).)
c.1740
- 1710 BC :
Tudhaliya
I? : King of Kussara, capital of the early
Hittite state.
While
not very powerful at this stage, the Hittites appear to make a tentative
step towards expansion by establishing a colony at Yadiya, not too
far to the south of Kanesh, in the northernmost reaches of Syria.
This may be their very first outward expansion in this direction,
and the colony is maintained by them until the final fall of the
Hittites.
![Map of Anatolia and Environs 2000 BC](Map1800BC_full.jpg)
This
was the situation in Anatolia which was inherited by the Hittites
as they formed their early empire in the eighteenth century BC
c.1710
- 1680 BC :
Pusarruma? : Son. King of Kussara.
c.1680
- 1650 BC :
Labarna I : King of Kussara. First confirmed Hittite king.
c.1670?
BC :
The city state of Zalpa, resurgent after the Hittite victory under
Anitta, is finally defeated by Labarna I. It is soon after this,
during the reigns of Labarna (whether I or II is unclear) and Hattusili,
that the Kaskans appear in the historical record - but only in thirteenth
century Hittite records which recount events that may have been
stretched backwards in time further than should be the case. These
records can be attributed to Muwatalli II, stating that 'Labarna
and Hattušili did not let them over the River Kumešmaha'. It is
more likely that the Kaskans do not appear until the middle of the
1500s BC.
Labarna II? : Reign uncertain.
He may have renamed himself Hattusili.
c.1650 - 1620 BC :
Hattusili I : Nephew/adopted son of Labarna, but which
is uncertain.
Under Hattusili, heir to the throne of Kassura, the Hittites rapidly
defeat their competitors in central Anatolia, probably inflicting
a final defeat on the Hatti (notably at Purushanda), and establishing
a new capital at Hattusa (a theory is that Labarna II takes the
name Hattusili in recognition of the victory, meaning 'one from
Hattusa'). Then they invade Arzawa in western Anatolia, and march
across the Euphrates to destroy cities in Ishuwa.
This
is followed up by the attack and destruction of several vassals
of the Syrian state of Yamkhad over a span of several years, extending
their own domains south into Syria. A Hittite viceroy is placed
in control of the Syrian state of Carchemish, while in Amurru a
local king is allowed to govern as a vassal. Ebla is also destroyed,
either by Hattusili or his son. Later claims are made that ties
of friendship with Wilusa date from this period, while apparent
early dominance over Kizzuwatna may also date from this period.
![Hittite old city](Hittite_OldCity01_full.jpg)
The
Hittite 'Old City' (which was probably based on the original construction
of the preceding Hatti city) comprised an area of almost one square
kilometre, being protected by a massive fortification wall, while
on the high ridge of Büyükkale was the residence of the 'Great King',
with the later extended city lying on the slope below, to the north-west,
and reaching towards the valley below
c.1620 - 1590 BC :
Mursili I : Grandson/adopted son. Murdered.
c.1595
BC :
Taking advantage of the increasing decline of Babylon, Mursili takes
his army down the Euphrates and sacks the city. On the way he ransacks
and destroys the city of Alep in Syria, and passes through Terqa.
When he returns home he is murdered by his brother-in-law who seizes
the throne.
c.1590
- 1560 BC :
Hantili I : Assassin and brother-in-law of Mursili I. Murdered.
c.1560 BC :
Having seized the throne through murder, Hantili reigns for around
thirty years. Hittite power may have been damaged by this act though,
or is in decline despite it. Thirteenth century Hittite records
which can be attributed to Muwatalli II show that the state loses
territory in the north to the Kaskans: 'The town of Tiliura was
empty from the days of Hantili [presumed to be Hantili I] and my
father Muršili [II] resettled it. And from there they [the Kaskans]
began to commit hostilities and Hantili built an outpost against
them... The [important religious] city of Nerik... was in ruins
from the days of Hantili', ruined by the Kaskans.
Hantili's
efforts against the Kaskans may not be successful as he is murdered
towards the end of his long reign. Various parties then contest
the throne and this internal instability prevents the Hittites from
gaining any benefit from their conquests in Syria and Mesopotamia.
The Hittite state does not re-emerge as a major power until the
fourteenth century BC.
![Queen Pudu-Hepa of Kizzuwatna](Hittite_PuduHepa_01_full.jpg)
Puda-Hepa,
Hattusili III's queen (on the right), proved highly influential
in bringing Kizzuwatnan culture into the Hittite court in the thirteenth
century BC - only for everything the two of them held dear to be
swept away within two generations of their reign
c.1560 - 1550 BC :
Zidanta I : Son-in-law of Hantili.
c.1550 - 1530 BC :
Ammuna : Son of Hantili. Lost Kizzuwatna to a revolt?
c.1530 - 1525 BC :
Huzziya I : Son?
Telipinu : Son of Zidanta I? Or brother-in-law of Ammuna.
Telipinu
concludes a treaty with his south-eastern neighbour, the state of
Kizzuwatna. The king's daughter is Harapšeki, who at some point
is married to Alluwamna, the first Hittite ruler of the 'Middle
Kingdom' period. However, the pair are banished to Malitashkur,
so it is entirely possible that Alluwamna does not immediately succeed
his father-in-law
Tahurwaili
: First cousin. Reign uncertain. Some place him after Hantili
II.
c.1525 - 1500 BC :
Tahurwaili agrees a parity treaty with Eheya of Kizzuwatna but the
event cannot be dated with any precision. Whilst Tahurwaili may
be a usurper around the time of Telipinu - or even a regent of some
kind, although the treaty does seem to specify him being the Hittite
ruler rather than holding power for someone else - some scholars
place him later, between Alluwamna and Hantili II of the 'Middle
Empire' period. Placing him this late does seem less realistic though.
Middle
Hittite Empire :
c.1500 - 1450 BC
Once they had conquered and settled central Anatolia, and following
a short spell of obscurity, the Hittites had quickly centralised
their power in the form of their 'Old Empire'. A new capital had
been formed at Hattousha (Hattusa, former city of the Hatti and
now known as Boğazkale in Turkey), which would remain the centre
of the empire until its fall. They had also been culturally influenced
by the Hurrians on their eastern border during this period, with
several rulers bearing Hurrian names and Hurrian Vedic gods being
worshipped (for instance at Yazilikaya).
However, problems set in when Hantili I seized the throne through
murder around 1590 BC. Hittite power may have been damaged by this
act, or was in decline despite it. Thirteenth century Hittite records
which can be attributed to Muwatalli II show that the state lost
territory in the north to the ever-problematic Kaskans: 'The town
of Tiliura was empty from the days of Hantili [presumed to be Hantili
I] and my father Muršili [II] resettled it. And from there they
[the Kaskans] began to commit hostilities and Hantili built an outpost
against them... The [important religious] city of Nerik... was in
ruins from the days of Hantili', ruined by the Kaskans. Hantili's
efforts against the Kaskans may not have been successful as he was
murdered towards the end of his long reign. Various parties then
contested the throne and this internal instability prevented the
Hittites from gaining any benefit from their conquests in Syria
and Mesopotamia. The Hittite state did not re-emerge as a major
power until the fourteenth century BC. Instead it was restrained
by the successful Hurrian empire of Mitanni, unable to gain direct
access to Syria. Relations were initially good with the neighbouring
kingdom of Kizzuwatna on its south-eastern border but, at some point
after about 1470 BC, the Kizzuwatnans were conquered by Mitanni,
and the Hittites were even more cut off and unable to respond, prevented
from expanding to the east or south (it should be noted that the
Hittites were never entirely able to expand to the west, instead
maintaining or encouraging client or allied kingdoms there such
as Arzawa or Troy). While at this low point, Hittite record-keeping
for this period was very sparse.
Three different dating theories are available for the Middle Hittites.
The one used here matches most closely with the 'middle list', the
others adding ten or twenty years onto these dates or taking twenty
years away from them. One or two gaps here are plugged from other
sources. The uncertainties surrounding Hittite dating are still
very great, so no one list can be said to be definitive. Despite
their establishment of one of the great late second millennium BC
empires, the surviving written record for the Hittites could do
with a great deal of expansion.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Arzawa Letters in Recent Perspective, J David Hawkins
(British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 14 (73-83, 2009)),
from Ancient Israel and Its Neighbours: Interaction and Counteraction.
Collected Essays Vol 1, Nadav Na'aman, from The Cambridge Ancient
History, edited by I E S Edwards, from Hittite Diplomatic
Texts, Gary Beckman (Second Ed, Scholars Press, Atlanta, 1999),
from The Kingdom of the Hittites, Trevor Bryce (1998), from
The Hittites, O R Gurney (1991), from Annals of Mursili
(Years 1 to 8), Ian Russell Lowell, from The Hittites, J
G Macqueen (1996), from Hittite Prayers, Itamar Singer (Scholars
Press, Atlanta, 2002), and from External Links: A Brief History
of Hattusha/Boğazköy (Archive.today), and Anatolian Conference
abstracts (Emory University).)
c.1500
- 1490 BC :
Alluwamna : Son-in-law of Telipinu of the 'Old Empire'.
c.1500 BC
While the dates for Alluwamna may be hard to pin down with any precision,
the case is the same for the name of his predecessor. It may be
the uncertain Tahurwaili, but is more probably Telipinu who is attested
in a treaty that had been signed with Kizzuwatna, although a period
of exile for Alluwamna provides for some level of doubt. His wife
is Harapšeki, the first-rank daughter of Telipinu, which at least
ensures that the two rulers should be relatively close together
on any list of kings.
![Map of Anatolia and Environs 1550 BC](Map1500BC_full.jpg)
Puda-Hepa,
Hattusili III's queen (on the right), proved highly influential
in bringing Kizzuwatnan culture into the Hittite court in the thirteenth
century BC - only for everything the two of them held dear to be
swept away within two generations of their reign
During
Alluwamna's reign, around 1490 BC, he renews a peace treaty with
Paddatišu of Kizzuwatna in the aforementioned treaty, only a few
years before that kingdom is conquered by the increasingly powerful
Mitanni state.
c.1490 - 1480 BC :
Hantili II : Son. Fought Tahurwaili?
c.1490 BC
Hantili renews the treaty of friendship with his south-eastern neighbour,
Kizzuwatna, and its king, Paddatišu. However, Hantili is not specifically
named in the treaty, so it could be his father who concludes it.
Then there is the interloper Tahurwaili who is mentioned at the
end of the 'Old Empire' period. Some scholars place him between
Alluwamna and Hantili (or even after Hantili), suggesting a brief
usurpation of the throne. Placing him this late does seem less realistic
though.
c.1480
- 1470 BC :
Zidanta II : Nephew?
c.1480
- 1475 BC
Although relations with Kizzuwatna are initially rocky, with both
kingdoms grabbing territory from each other, Zidanta eventually
agrees a new parity treaty with King Pilliya (II). It is the last
such treaty to be agreed between the two states.
c.1470 - 1460 BC :
Huzziya II : Relationship uncertain. Killed by Muwatalli.
c.1470
BC
Subject
to frequent raids from Alakhtum, the faction-torn Hittites are unable
to respond. Huzziya is murdered by Muwatalli, his own 'Chief of
the Royal Bodyguard', perhaps the first break with the ancient royal
bloodline. Around the same time, neighbouring Kizzuwatna is conquered
by Mitanni. With Ishuwa also independent of Hittite control (and
now a vassal of Mitanni), the Hittites are contained in central
Anatolia except for the south-eastern Taurus passes into Syria.
c.1460
- 1450 BC :
Muwatalli I : Reign uncertain. Most lists place Tudhaliya
at 1460 BC.
c.1450
BC
In
what is possibly far more brief a reign than is suspected here,
Muwattalli, a former 'Chief of the Royal Bodyguard', is killed in
a palace coup by Himuili, the 'Chief of the Palace Servants', and
Kantuzili, the 'Overseer of the Gold Chariot Fighters'.
![Hittite Lion Gates](Hittite_LionGates02_full.jpg)
The
Lion Gates of the Hittite capital were of a style popular throughout
the ancient Near East, with an example being found in Mycenae and
a later version existing in Jerusalem
A
succession struggle follows which is scarcely documented at all.
Muwa, 'Chief of the Royal Bodyguard' and probably the brother of
the dead king, flees to Mitanni and solicits their help. On the
other side of the struggle, Kantuzzili joins forces with a man named
Tudhaliya. The two factions meet in battle, and Tudhaliya and Kantuzzili
emerge victorious. Of the conspirators, it is Tudhaliya who becomes
the next great king of the Hittites, ushering in the 'New Empire'
period.
New
Hittite Empire :
c.1450 - 1200 BC
The previous century had been one of domination by the Hurrian empire
of Mitanni. The Hittites in their 'Middle Empire' phase had been
unable to expand east or south and were largely confined to local
Anatolian political efforts. Now a resurgent Hittite empire began
to change the balance of power, with the Assyrians further east
doing the same. At the same time, non-Indo-European barbarians such
as the Kaskans began to strengthen in northern Anatolia, and a region
or state known as Ahhiyawa was first mentioned on the Anatolian
coast of the Aegean.
Geographically, the borders of the reinvigorated Hittite empire
shifted constantly. The capital city was in central Anatolia in
the basin of the River Kizil Irmak, and military expansion efforts
focussed mainly on the south in Syria. It is unclear precisely where
the northern and western borders lay, but the Kaskans in the north
were at times clients of the Hittites, although barely manageable
ones. As the state's organisation was not by direct territorial
control but by domination over vassals, the borders were determined
by the level of control which could be exercised over those vassals.
The southern region of Tarhuntassa in particular began to exercise
more independence as central power declined towards the end of the
empire, and on the south-western Mediterranean shore, the Lukka
were never entirely tamed.
Three different dating theories are available for the New Hittites.
The one used here matches most closely with the 'middle list', the
others adding ten or twenty years onto these dates or taking twenty
years away from them. One or two gaps here are plugged from other
sources. The uncertainties surrounding Hittite dating are still
very great, so no one list can be said to be definitive. Despite
their establishment of one of the great late second millennium BC
empires, the surviving written record for the Hittites could do
with a great deal of expansion.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Arzawa Letters in Recent Perspective, J David Hawkins
(British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 14 (73-83, 2009)),
from Ancient Israel and Its Neighbours: Interaction and Counteraction.
Collected Essays Vol 1, Nadav Na'aman, from The Cambridge Ancient
History, edited by I E S Edwards, from Hittite Diplomatic
Texts, Gary Beckman (Second Ed, Scholars Press, Atlanta, 1999),
from The Kingdom of the Hittites, Trevor Bryce (1998), from
The Hittites, O R Gurney (1991), from Annals of Mursili
(Years 1 to 8), Ian Russell Lowell, from The Hittites, J
G Macqueen (1996), from Hittite Prayers, Itamar Singer (Scholars
Press, Atlanta, 2002), and from External Links: A Brief History
of Hattusha/Boğazköy (Archive.today), and Anatolian Conference
abstracts, Emory University.)
c.1450
- 1420 BC :
Tudhaliya II (I) : Son of Huzziya II? Shown as Tudhaliya
I in some lists.
fl
1430s BC :
Mattiwaza
/ Madduwattas : King of Alashiya. Hittite-backed contestant
for Arzawa.
c.1430 BC :
Tudhaliya
begins a restoration of Hittite power, conducting his third campaign
against the Kaskans in the north. Arzawa concludes a treaty with
Tudhaliya, but when Ahhiyawa conquers Madduwattas' kingdom of Alashiya,
Tudhaliya installs the latter in the mountain country of Zippasla
and supports his attempts to capture the Arzawan throne. This installation
would seem to be more of a re-installation, as Madduwattas has already
fought several battles against the Arzawan king.
![Map of Ancient Anatolia c.1450 BC](Map1450BC_full.jpg)
The
state of Arzawa existed from at least 1650 BC. By around 1450 BC
it controlled the solid green section of the map, which included
the state of Tarhuntassa, but probably not the 'Lower Land'
The
eastern land of Ishuwa is defeated by the Hittite king, and then
sides with Mitanni. Tudhaliya is unable to capture Ishuwa, revealing
the limits of Hittite power in this period, so instead he successfully
attacks Kizzuwatna, a Mitanni possession. However, he does order
Madduwattas to put down a revolt in Happalla. Madduwattas does so,
but then forces Happalla to switch its loyalty to him. Then he bullies
Pitassa into his kingdom, which brings Arzawa's borders even closer
to the Hittite heartland.
c.1420 - 1400 BC :
Arnuwanda I : Son-in-law.
c.1400
BC :
Kizzuwatna
falls to the Hittites when Arnuwanda's army overruns it. On the
western border, Arnuwanda continues the support of Madduwattas,
aiding him in eventually winning the throne of Arzawa. Madduwattas
then expands his state right up to the Hittite borders. Arnuwanda
is distracted by serious problems that he has with the Kaskans,
with many northern territories falling into their hands, including
the cult centre of Nerik.
c.1400 - 1380 BC :
Tudhaliya III (II) : Son. Not in all lists and his rule
is uncertain.
c.1392 BC :
The Hittites wrest domination of the Assyrians from Mitanni, possibly
annexing their territory to Kizzuwatna. The change is to the benefit
of the Assyrians as they are able to end a period of vassal kings
and gain more freedom under their new overlords.
c.1400
- 1380 BC :
Hattusili II : Precise position in the list is uncertain.
c.1380 - 1370 BC :
Tudhaliya IV (III) : Son of Tudhaliya III. Weakened by
illness and dethroned.
c.1375 BC :
The
Kaskans suffer the loss of their grain to locusts so, in search
of food, they join up with the eastern states of Hayasa-Azzi and
Ishuwa, plus the Lukka and other Hittite enemies. The devastation
to the grain crops may also have been suffered by others, making
it not only easy to get them all to unite but highly necessary,
and the Hittites may be taken by surprise by the sheer forcefulness
of the attack. Recent Hittite resurgence suffers a knock when their
fort of Masat is burned down, but then the capital, Hattusa, is
itself attacked and burned (although the event is shrouded in mystery).
Possibly the secondary capital at Sapinuwa is also attacked and
burned.
![Mount Nemrut](Nemrut_Tomb01_full.jpg)
Representative
of some of the terrain in Hayasa-Azzi is Mount Nemrut, north of
Lake Van, which in the first century BC became a tomb sanctuary
for the kings of Commagene
The
Kaskans make Nenassa their frontier, while Hayasa-Azzi seizes the
Hittite city of Samuha. Despite being an able and active ruler before
illness keeps him off the battlefield, events are clearly against
Tudhaliya. The Hittite state loses its international standing, and
also loses most of its possessions both near and far, to the extent
that the Egyptians wonder if the state has fallen entirely. However,
while this disaster personally weakens the position of the Hittite
king, it seemingly does little to set back the Hittites themselves.
c.1370 - 1336 BC :
Suppiluliuma I : Took the throne in coup. Son of Tudhaliya
III. Died of plague.
Upon seizing the throne, Suppiluliuma pushes back an invasion by
the Kaskan barbarians and invades Hayasa-Azzi. Then he inflicts
a shock defeat on the Hurrian empire of Mitanni (working with his
son, Piyashshili), initiating that powerful state's decline and
effectively creating the Hittite 'New Empire'. Piyashshili is given
the territory of Ashtata to rule from Carchemish. However, Suppiluliuma
is not entirely successful at first in pushing back Arzawa, which
is very powerful at this stage.
During
his reign, the Hittites also solidify their control over the south
and east of Anatolia (including in Tarhuntassa and Ishuwa), play
politics in Arzawa, gain Mitanni territory in northern Syria, and
suppress a rebellion in Kizzuwatna. The city state of Alalakh is
drawn directly under Hittite rule, removing the local rulers, while
Amurru, Emar, Qadesh (scene of the great thirteenth century BC chariot
battle against Egypt), and Ugarit become vassals, Carchemish and
Alep are ruled by sons of Suppiluliuma, and Hittite control extends
as far south as Damas, while Wilusa remains an ally.
c.1339
BC :
The
Syrian Mitanni territory falls completely under Hittite overlordship,
to all intents and proposes ending Hurrian culture. At the same
time the Assyrians regain their independence. The subject state
of Amurru switches allegiance to the Hittites.
c.1336 - 1333 BC :
Arnuwanda II : Son of Suppiluliuma. Incapacitated by plague.
c.1333 - 1308 BC :
Mursili II : Brother. May initially have shared power with
Arnuwanda.
c.1326 - 1321 BC :
Devoting attention to the areas of Anatolia which had been ignored
by his father, Mursili defeats Arzawa around 1325 BC, with the result
that it disappears as a cohesive state (this event has also been
dated to around 1306-1305 BC). The Hittites with their greatly expanded
Anatolian territory now border Ahhiyawa in the west. Mursili also
attacks the Kaskans to the north, but in the seventh year of his
reign, Hayasa-Azzi raids the land of Dankuwa on the Hittite border,
capturing the area's population and beginning four years of warfare.
The Hittite general, Nuwanza (Nuvanza), resoundingly defeats them
in the Upper Land before a campaign finally subdues the Hayasians.
![The 'Aleppo Treaty' of the fourteenth century BC](Ancient_Alep01_full.jpg)
The
treaty agreed between Mursili II and Talmi-sharruma of Aleppo to
regulate future relations between the two states - most of the document
survived three millennia of abandonment before being rediscovered
by archaeologists
c.1308 - 1282 BC :
Muwatalli II : Son of Mursili II.
c.1300 BC :
The now-independent Assyrians begin to take control of Mitanni,
while Muwatalli moves his capital to the previously obscure city
of Tarhuntassa in southern Anatolia (possibly due to the Kaskan
sacking of Hattusa). He leaves his brother, the future Hattusili
III in charge of the northern areas, from where he re-conquers Hattusa
and the long-ruined cult centre of Nerik, allowing the capital to
be returned to the north. Muwatalli is also in contact with his
ally, Alexandros of Wilusa, regarding the remaining Arzawan client
states.
1286
BC :
The
Battle of Kadesh/Qadesh (the earliest surviving report of a major
engagement) sees the forces of Egypt, under Ramses II, and the Hittites
together with their various allies, including troops from Arzawa
and the Lukka, clash for control of former Mitanni Syria. The battle
ends with no clear outcome although the Hittites come out on top,
gaining uncontested control of Syria, and also raiding further south
into Canaan. Kadesh is given over to the Hittite subject state of
Ashtata. The victory, though, seems to spark the beginnings of a
civil war in the Hittite nobility which lasts for about three generations.
c.1280 BC :
Muwatalli concludes a treaty with his ally, Alexandros/Aleksandu
of Wilusa, regarding the remaining Arzawan client states. The Arzawan
state of Masa (on the south-eastern border of Wilusa's territory)
attacks Alexandros and is destroyed (again) by Muwatalli.
![Hittite tablet mentioning Arzawa](Hittite_Tablet01_full.jpg)
This
Hittite tablet mentions the kingdom of Arzawa, although generally
the Anatolia kingdom is little-known and barely mentioned in the
historical record
c.1282 - 1275 BC :
Mursili III (Urhi-Teshub) : Son by a concubine. Deposed
by his uncle.
c.1282 - 1275 BC :
In the north Mursili's uncle, Hattusili, uses his powerbase to undermine
Mursili, eventually deposing him, seemingly with the help of the
deposed Benteshina of Amurru. This is unheard of, and it shatters
the bond of trust between kings and nobility - the kingship is no
longer sacred and untouchable. Mursili makes his powerbase in Arzawa,
where he is supported by the populace. Hattusili makes Mursili's
son, Karunta, 'king of Tarhuntassa' in the south, while officially
exiling Mursili himself to an outlying part of the state.
c.1275
- 1250 BC :
Hattusili III : Brother of Muwatalli II.
Hattusili's queen, Pudu-Hepa, formerly a priestess from Kizzuwatna,
aids the integration of the Kizzuwatnan pantheon into the Hittite
one, with the goddess Hebat becoming very important. To the west,
Ahhiyawa first becomes a major regional power at this time, and
the Hittite ally in Wilusa is overthrown.
1258
BC :
Egypt
and the Hittites (under Hattusili) agree the earliest known peace
treaty, allowing them to peacefully share Syria (including what
is now Lebanon). The treaty remains in force for forty years. From
Hattusili's point of view, the agreement may be important in legitimising
his rule, as well as guaranteeing a level of security against the
threat of Assyrian aggression, now that they have conquered much
of eastern Mitanni.
![Cubic stone at Hattusa](Hittite_CubicStone01_full.jpg)
The
green cubic stone at Hattusa was probably a gift to the Hittite
rulers of the city from the Egyptian pharaoh with whom they signed
a peace treaty in 1258 BC
c.1250 - 1241 BC :
Tudhaliya V (IV) : Son of Hattusili III. Deposed?
c.1241 - 1240 BC :
Karunta : Son of Muwatalli / cousin of Tudhaliya V. Only
briefly great king?
Karuta,
king of Tarhuntassa, may temporarily depose his cousin, as he appears
as 'Great King' on seals found at Hattusa. Tudhaliya regains the
throne, but Assyria attacks the state from the east, and vassals
in the west and south-west of Anatolia rebel. Trouble in the regions
adjoining the Aegean may be inspired by an elusive 'king of Ahhiyawa',
situated between the coast and the former state of Arzawa. He is
a major player, but hard to pinpoint in any detail, and Tudhaliya
is unable to suppress him despite taking Milawata (classical Miletus).
c.1241
- 1220 BC :
Tudhaliya
V (IV) : Restored? Confirmed Karunta's rule in Tarhuntassa.
c.1230
BC :
Amurru concludes a treaty with the Hittite king, preventing seaborne
trade between Assyria and Ahhiyawa as the struggle between the two
states for domination of western Anatolia heats up.
c.1220
- 1215 BC :
Arnuwanda III : Son of Tudhaliya V.
Suppiluliuma II : Brother. Fate unknown. Last Hittite king.
c.1215 - 1200 BC :
Tarhuntassa attacks the Hittite state, but no further details are
known. Suppiluliuma II is occupied with engaging Alashiya in sea
battles as he attempts to invade the Cypriot kingdom.
c.1200 BC :
The international system has recently been creaking under the strain
of increasing waves of peasants and the poor leaving the cities
and abandoning crops. Around the end of this century the entire
region is also hit by drought and the loss of surviving crops. Food
supplies dwindle and the number of raids by habiru and other
groups of peoples who have banded together greatly increases until,
by about 1200 BC, this flood has turned into a tidal wave.
![Habu relief at Medinet](SeaPeoples_Medinet01_full.jpg)
Attacks
by the Sea Peoples gathered momentum during the last decade of the
thirteenth century BC, quickly reaching a peak which lasted about
forty years
Already
decaying from late in the thirteenth century BC, as Assyria has
risen and instability has gripped the Mediterranean coast, the Hittite
empire is now looted and destroyed by various surrounding peoples,
including the Kaskans and the Sea Peoples (and perhaps even selectively
by its own populace). Some important Hittite cities and states,
such as Tarhuntassa and Ugarit, disappear - and Milawata (classical
Miletus) is destroyed - but others, such as Carchemish, survive.
Hittite elements, now homeless, appear to join the Sea Peoples in
subsequent raids on Egypt.
Small Hittite (or 'neo-Hittite') states form out of some territories:
in western Anatolia, Maeonia emerges as an independent kingdom;
in the south-west, Lycia; in south-central and eastern Anatolia,
Kummuhu, and Tabal; while north-east of Maeonia, an Indo-European
people who are allied to the Kaskans form the kingdom of Phrygia;
the Sea Peoples ravage eastern Anatolia and Syria (and some scholars
associate them with Tabal). The Philistines, more displaced settlers,
arrive on the coast of Canaan. Further neo-Hittite states continue
to survive in northern Syria, and some are mentioned in the Old
Testament. This is also the generally-accepted period in which the
Israelites begin creating a kingdom.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/AnatoliaHittites.htm
#Old%20Hittite%20Empire