c.6000
BC :
It
is approximately around this time that separation occurs between
archaic pre-proto-Indo-European and its parent Nostratic tongue.
When speculating about the reason for this, isolation in a mountainous
region has to be a key factor. This event would be prior to the
'Kurgan Hypothesis' homeland, the dominant theory to explain the
migrations of Indo-Europeans and the early cultures that they
form.
However, results in 2015 from DNA tests on human remains from
two burials in the Caucuses - one 13,000 years ago and the other
10,000 years ago - suggests that the separation could be far longer
and older than this, perhaps as much as 25,000 years. Separated
by the Glacial Maximum, they could have been cut off from outside
DNA contact until as recently as 3,000 BC. The Yamnaya horizon
which covers Indo-European expansion reveals the research results
in more detail.
![Proto-Indo-European spiral city](Kazakhstan_IECity01_full.jpg)
Professor
Gennady Zdanovich has recently (2010) made fresh discoveries on
the modern Kazakhstan steppe of Bronze Age 'spiral' cities which
exhibit many signs of having been built and used by Indo-Europeans,
having been built around 2000 BC
c.5800
- 5000 BC :
Folk migrations by pioneer Near Eastern farmers reach the lower
Danube valley and the edge of the Pontic-Caspian steppe by about
5800 BC. After several centuries of resistance and low-scale
cultural influence from the farmers - principally members of the
Bug-Dniester culture - their new herding economy is adopted by
a few key forager groups on the River Dnieper. It then diffuses
very rapidly across most of the Pontic-Caspian steppe as far east
as the Volga and Ural rivers. This revolutionary event transforms
the economy, rituals, and politics of the steppe-dwellers. A new
set of dialects and words spreads across the steppes with the
arrival of the new economic and ritual-political system - the
ancestors of proto-Indo-European. Chiefs begin to emerge, along
with religious leaders and ministers.
c.4000
BC :
By
this period, if not from the very beginning, the newly-emergent
proto-Indo-Europeans in Central Asia form an homogenous people
who all speak the same general language. The Uralic-speaking foragers
to their north borrow some of their words, probably through trade
contacts. Their expansion sees the beginning of areal dialects
(a common language that is spread over a division of areas and
spaces with regional differences emerging). Through a study of
these dialects and their progression some idea of movement can
be built up. Perhaps first established as part of the Suvorovo
culture of this period, the Anatolian dialect moves south (perhaps
even earlier than this date - 4400 BC seems a fair approximation),
while most of the others appear to expand north into the Pontic-Caspian
steppe.
Is the horse domesticated and the horse-drawn wagon adopted at
this time? The Sumerian invention of the wheel seems to take place
no later than 3500 BC and its use explodes across the ancient
world, even reaching the comparatively isolated proto-Indo-Europeans
within a century or so. This horse-drawn wagon/wheel culture forms
the basis of the 'Kurgan Hypothesis' homeland period (the most
popular theory surrounding Indo-European migration), with most
Indo-Europeans in the steppe. Suddenly the vast steppe is open
to them rather than their being limited to its edges so that they
can return to semi-permanent dwellings in the fertile river valleys.
Instead, domesticated animal herds can increase massively in size,
populations can also expand, and the Neolithic family clan group
now begins to break up as smaller kin groups become more mobile.
c.4000
- 3500 BC :
This
is the early proto-Indo-European phase in the Indo-European homeland
on the Pontic-Caspian steppe. It is during this phase - and probably
towards the end of it - that the Tocharian branch begins to break
away and migrate eastwards, following the Central Asian steppe
towards Mongolia and western China. There they form the Afanasevo
culture. The exact details are theoretical but, due to elements
of the Tocharian language which preserve early elements of proto-Indo-European,
it has been proposed that the Tocharian group is originally made
up of western Indo-Europeans who are heavily influenced by their
eastern experiences.
![Tarim Basin mummies](Tocharians_TarimMummies04_full.jpg)
This
example of the Tarim Basin mummies (descendants of the Tocharian
migrants) had the usual distinctive European features, along with
a full head of red hair which had been braided into pony tails,
and items of woven material which match similar Celtic items
c.3500
- 3000 BC :
Linguists
have pinpointed this period for the development of a pastoral
code amongst the early Indo-Europeans who are busy driving their
herds of cattle across the vast plains of the steppes. The theory
behind such a code of behaviour is that, one group of people happen
to see a dot on the horizon that turns out to be another approaching
group, then they have two choices for how they will react: attempt
to destroy them or deal with them peaceably. The pastoralists
go with the latter - presume friendship until the evidence disproves
it - and this concept generates the word *ghos-ti-, meaning 'stranger,
guest', but also 'host'. Both 'guest' and 'host' are direct descendants
of this word. The same concept is passed down to the Classical
Greek world.
c.3500
BC :
The
Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language has already separated
entirely from the other groups, first becoming pre-Anatolian,
and then evolving into proto-Anatolian. It retains many archaic
features which are later lost from the other branches of the Indo-European
language. However, it forms the ancestor of the Hittite language,
plus Luwian (with many sub-branches - see c.1600 BC, below, for
details of these), Lydian, and Palaic, all of which have been
part of the Anatolian movement from the Indo-European homeland,
heading south through the mountains of the Caucuses, eventually
to reach the highlands of Anatolia. From there, the Hittites manage
to form an empire that encompasses most of Anatolia, although
they are later arrivals and it takes them longer to settle than
it does the Luwian-speakers. Pala speakers are later overrun by
the non-Indo-European Kaskans and their dialect dies out following
absorption by the Phrygians.
c.3500
- 3300 BC :
Other
groups have already begun to migrate westwards, and also southwards
away from the Anatolian and Tocharian branches. All of these westwards
groups often use four-wheeled wagons to transport their people,
and possess wagon/wheel vocabulary that is wholly original to
themselves, but which is not shared by the Anatolian group and
is only partially shared by the Tocharian group, demonstrating
an arrival of the wheel some time around the point at which the
Tocharians had been beginning to lose touch with their kinsfolk.
The process of migration begins a fragmentation that sees these
late proto-Indo-Europeans enter large swathes of Europe, the Near
East, and South Asia. One of the first groups to arrive in Europe
forms the Corded Ware culture (from about 2900 BC) which initially
(and in part) settles around the Baltic coast to become the later
Belarussians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Prussians. The Slavic group
is closely related to the Balts but appears to separate from it
before the latter reaches the Baltic coastline.
![Northern Mesopotamian chariot petroglyphs](Kazakhstan_Chariots01_full.jpg)
The
Yamnaya Horizon theory saw many semi-nomadic pastoral tribes migrate
huge distances over many generations, helped by their use of four-wheeled
wagons and chariots, and the petroglyphs shown here (from northern
Mesopotamia) form one of history's earliest recordings of these
chariots
According
to David Anthony, the Yamnaya Horizon explodes across the Pontic-Caspian
steppe around 3300 BC, this being the primary vector through which
proto-Indo-Europeans spread westwards. The various interrelated
cultural expressions that form the basis of this 'horizon' are
created by early proto-Indo-Europeans who belong to semi-nomadic,
pastoral tribes which can, more or less, understand each other.
Beginning their migration, these people reach the Carpathian Mountains
and the River Danube near modern Budapest, where this folk migration
appears to halt.
Nature.com (2015) supports the 'Yamnaya Horizon' theory. By around
4000-3000 BC, farmers throughout much of Europe have more hunter-gatherer
(forager) ancestry than their predecessors (showing a gradual
blending of earlier hunter-gatherers and the farmers who had arrived
between about 6000-5000 BC). In Russia, the Yamnaya steppe herders
of this time are descended not only from the preceding Pontic-Caspian
hunter-gatherers, but also from a population of 'Near Eastern'
ancestry. Neolithic farmers had expanded around the western coast
of the Black Sea to interact with the hunter-gatherers in the
sixth millennium BC, and it seems that, eventually, the two groups
had intermingled, producing a population that was mixed with a
greater degree of farmers than in Western Europe.
c.3300
BC :
Very recently, in far south-eastern Europe, in the North Caucasus
Mountains, spectacularly ostentatious chiefs had suddenly appeared
amongst what had previously been very ordinary small-scale farmers.
They display gold-covered clothing, gold and silver staffs, and
great quantities of bronze weapons obtained from the newly formed
cities of Middle Uruk Mesopotamia, through Anatolian middlemen.
This is probably the first true contact between southern urban
civilisations and the people of the steppe margins, taking place
about 3700-3500 BC, and it forms the basis of the creation of
Maikop culture.
Something less obvious to many is that cannabis may be travelling
in the opposite direction to the gold and silver that is coming
from the south - this time travelling from the Pontic-Caspian
steppes to Mesopotamia and the early city states of Sumer. Greek
kdnnabis and proto-Germanic *baniptx seem to be
related to the Sumerian kuriibu. Sumerian dies out as a
widely spoken language after around 2000 BC, so the connection
must be a very ancient one. The international trade of the Late
Uruk period (circa 3300-3100 BC) provides a suitable context
for this trade.
The link between the early, proto-Indo-European form of the word
cannabis (and therefore its probable Sumerian origin of kuriibu)
to the proto-Germanic form requires a few steps. In the late Bronze
Age, proto-Germanic groups are pretty isolated in southern Scandinavia
and along the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, but are theorised
to be in contact with the proto-Celts (and possibly even dominated
by them). In support of this is the realisation that 'cannabis'
would need to pass through Celtic to reach its Germanic form:
the initial 'k' would be a 'kw' in Q-Celtic (of the First Wave),
transformed to a 'p' in P-Celtic (of the Second Wave), and then
transformed into a 'b' in Belgic (northern Celtic), and finally
adopted into Germanic. This appears to fit in with the idea that
Belgic Celts dominate northern Europe prior to the rise of the
Germanic tribes around the fifth century BC.
![Bird vases of the Urnfield Culture](Cultures_Urnfield01_full.jpg)
Bird
vases of the late second millennium Urnfield culture were objects
that were closely related to the Urnfield belief system, and it
may not be accidental that this vase was found next to a pot containing
bird eggs in the cemetery of Békásmegyer, as the two objects together
may emphasise the pots' symbolism of life and fertility
c.3300
- 2600 BC :
Possibly offshoots of the Yamnaya cultural horizon which had formed
after westwards migration had halted at the River Danube around
Budapest, groups of Indo-Europeans now first begin to arrive in
Greece (or a little later based on revised theories - passing
through and probably interacting with the general mass of Indo-European
tribes of the northern Balkans). They blend with the indigenous
populations to later form Mycenaean, Minoan, Cypriot and (southern)
Italian cultures. Similar groups also begin to arrive in north-western
Europe, settling amongst earlier populations of Neolithic farmers
and Palaeolithic hunters.
Further to the 'Yamnaya Horizon' theory (see previous entry, above),
David Anthony adds that the split between the Italic and closely-allied
Celtic language groups appears to occur between 3100 and 2600
BC. Then Bell Beaker decorated cup styles, domestic pot types,
and grave and dagger types from the middle Danube are adopted
around 2600 BC in Moravia and southern Germany, possibly as a
result of trade rather than immediate migration. However, this
material network could be the bridge through which pre-Celtic
dialects spread into Germany. The southernmost areas of this,
Austria, and Bavaria, seemingly become the location in which proto-Celtic
originally develops - in other words the language's homeland.
According to Ellis (1998), The large number of Celtic place-names
still surviving in Switzerland and south-western Germany are therefore
an indication that when the Celtic peoples appear in the historical
record they are already well-settled in this area. He also echoes
Hubert's views that the survival to this day of so many Celtic
names for important geographical features (such as the rivers
Rhine and Danube) in what are now German-speaking regions points
to the names being of indigenous form and of long usage.
c.3000
BC :
Whether
David Anthony's proposed timescale is accepted or not, a date
of around 3000 BC is still used as the probable point at which
the remaining Indo-Europeans (excepting the Anatolian branch)
begin to separate into definite proto languages which are not
intelligible to each other. A western group will evolve into or
subsume Celtic, Italic, Venetic, Illyrian, Ligurian, Vindelician/Liburnian
and Raetic branches. Early in this western group's expansion,
one tribe apparently makes the aforementioned U-turn and heads
east (which is easy enough to do when you are a steppe nomad!)
to evolve into the Tocharian branch of Indo-Europeans (see 2200
BC, below).
A
north-western branch begins the Germanic ethnic group (which apparently
splits away from the western edge of late proto-Indo-European
dialects around 3300 BC - see feature link, right). A northern
branch evolves into what will become the aforementioned Baltic
peoples (principally Latvians, Lithuanians and Old Prussians)
and also the Slavic peoples (with division between the two occurring
around 2500 BC). Proto-Greeks form a south-western branch that
emerges as the Mycenaeans (around 2500 BC), probably along with
Thracians, Dacians, and Phrygians, all of whom seem to be related
to the Armenians.
An
eastern branch - or perhaps a branch that stays in the steppe
homeland for another millennium or so and which therefore becomes
an eastern branch by default because the rest have headed off
west - apparently calling themselves Arya or something similar
form the ancestors of a good deal of India's modern population
(except for the southernmost parts - see 2200 BC, below), plus
Kurds, Persians, Mannaeans, Medians, and related peoples (see
1200 BC, below), possibly also including the Sakas. All of these
groups are classed as Indo-Iranians and their sub-divisions.
![Central Asia Indo-European map 3000 BC](Map_CentralAsia_3000BC_full.jpg)
By
around 3000 BC the Indo-Europeans had begun their mass migration
away from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, with the bulk of them heading
westwards towards the heartland of Europe
c.2500
BC :
Nature.com (2015) has this as the approximate time at which the
Yamnaya steppe people come into contact with Western Europe's
population of farmers and increasingly farming-orientated hunter-gatherers.
The Late Neolithic Corded Ware culture is one of the first results
of this arrival (having already made its earliest appearance around
2900 BC). Corded Ware people from Germany trace around seventy-five
per cent of their ancestry to the Yamnaya, documenting a massive
migration into the heartland of Europe from its eastern periphery.
This steppe ancestry persists in all sampled Central Europeans
until at least 1000 BC, and is ubiquitous in present-day Europeans.
It would seem to be around this time that a process begins in
which the so-called West Indo-European tribes, most of whom speak
dialects that are intelligible to the other tribes, start a long
process of fracturing and dividing. There is also an unrelated
tribe which is not as closely related to this group which follows
a path along the northern reaches of Europe at some unknown point
in time, and which becomes the Germanic-speaking people.
The West Indo-European speakers appear to form a divide into two
groupings due to location and contacts. The northern group becomes
isolated from direct contact with the Mediterranean civilisations
and these people become the proto-Celts of the Urnfield culture.
The southern group of West Indo-Europeans appear to migrate westwards
and southwards into the western Balkans and Italian piedmont,
and through Illyria and northern Italy. Due to terrain, they divide
further into semi-isolated tribes, becoming more civilised in
habits and technologies due to contact with southern Greeks and
Etruscans. Those in the Balkans in part cross by sea into the
Italian peninsula, and settle mostly along the south-eastern coast.
Those groups that have filtered down from the north Italian piedmont
occupy swathes of central Italy, with two tribes, Latins and Faliscans,
crossing over the Apennines to the west coast. Because of their
semi-isolation to the west of Italy their language does not undergo
the 'qu/kw' to 'p' shift that occurs across most of the West Indo-European
dialects.
![Aeneas in Latium](Rome_Relief_Aeneas01_full.jpg)
This
second century AD relief in Rome depicts Aeneas landing in Latium,
although such a migration myth was a much later addition to the
history of the Latins than their true migration as Indo-Europeans
c.2350
-2300 BC :
The
Gutians, possible Indo-European tribes in the Zagros Mountains,
are first mentioned, and go on to dominate southern Mesopotamia
for a century. In the same period, Indo-European tribes in the
form of the Luwian peoples settle across southern Anatolia. It
seems more than coincidental that 'barbarians from the north'
are causing problems in cities within Syria such as Ebla at the
same time. Without any written evidence to support such a claim,
it does seem likely that one of these groups is responsible for
probing expeditions farther south.
c.2200
- 2000 BC :
An
indigenous Bronze Age culture emerges in Central Asia between
modern Turkmenistan and down towards the Oxus (otherwise known
as the Amu Darya), the somewhat nebulous region called Transoxiana.
It is known as the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, or
Oxus Civilisation (centred on the later provinces of Bactria and
Margiana). Indo-European tribes who have not taken part in the
exodus to the west or south soon integrate themselves into it.
In fact, these Indo-Europeans seem to have remained in the old
homeland to the north of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea longer
than other Indo-European groups, at least partially generating
the Sintashta culture and Andronovo horizon to the east.
It
may also be this Oxus culture, or a neighbouring Indo-European
group which feeds off its progressive nature, which forms the
'spiral cities' of the Kazakhstan steppe (see the first photo
on the page, above). Items that have so far been recovered from
recent exploration in this region include make-up equipment, a
chariot, and numerous pieces of pottery. The artefacts are daubed
in swastikas (symbols of the sun and of eternal life). Evidence
of ritual horse burials are also found, which ties in with ancient
Indo-Aryan texts that describe the animals being sliced up and
buried with their masters.
Given
the fact that they appear in the historical record around the
same time, the Andronovo people and other Indo-Europeans who integrate
into the Oxus may be related to the Anatolian branch of Indo-European
languages which had begun to divide from the other branches around
3500 BC (see above). Alternatively, they may be related to the
comparatively late migration of the Indo-Iranians and Indo-Aryans
who become the Alani, Mannaeans, Medians, Mitanni, Persians, Scythians,
and Indians, and possibly also the Sakas. The latter option seems
the most likely one.
![The Karakum burial with a valuable horse sacrifice added](Prehistory_Karakum02_full.jpg)
This
king's tomb in the Indo-European settlement in the Karakum (modern
Turkmenistan) contains a valuable horse to accompany him into
the afterlife
2000
- 1700 BC :
Climate
change from around 2000 BC onwards greatly affects this civilisation,
denuding it of water as the rains decline. The people are forced
to migrate away, abandoning many of their cities. Indo-Iranian
groups become dominant here, and over time some of their descendants
enter Iran to found states such as that of the Mannaeans, the
Median empire, and early Persia. Some go even farther even earlier
to form the Mitanni empire. Others cross the rivers of modern
Afghanistan and the Hindu Kush mountains and enter India between
1700-1500 BC. They eventually form their own kingdoms there such
as Magadh, plus Kaling, and the Kaurava state.
c.2000
BC :
DNA
analysis in 2015 of three males from this period backs up the
theory that Ireland is populated via waves of immigration. The
males are from Rathlin Island and live very soon after metallurgy
is introduced into Ireland. They show a different DNA pattern
from earlier populations, with a third of their ancestry coming
from the Pontic Steppe (now covering much of Ukraine and a large
swathe of southern Russia), which links them directly to the Indo-Europeans.
They show a close genetic affinity with the modern Irish, Scots,
and Welsh, but not so close a connection with the English, who
have been diluted by the Anglo-Saxon admixture.
While these arrivals are not necessarily Celts as such, they can
seemingly be counted as proto-Celts, springing as they do from
the same stock that settles in Central Europe and later forms
the basis of Celtic culture. Indo-Europeans are nomadic, moving
quickly in four-wheeled carts or chariots. While many of them
may indeed be expanding and migrating slowly, generation by generation,
it wouldn't take much for a small group (less than 100,000) to
leave the others behind. When they reach water they may learn
to make boats from the Mediterranean types already occupying the
coastal areas. This rapid movement can be compared favourably
with how quickly the later Cimbri travel from Jutland to Italy,
and the journey could be completed in well under a decade of travel.
![Cashel Man](BronzeAge_CashelMan01_full.jpg)
The
Cashel Man bog body of Ireland has been compressed by four thousand
years of peat build-up, but his outstretched hand can still be
made out above his legs (to the left of the picture)
c.1600
BC :
Following
the beginnings of their migration into Anatolia of around 3500
BC and settlement around 2300 BC onwards (see above), the Luwian
peoples now begin to emerge into history divided into two groups;
the Arzawans to the west and the Kizzuwatnans in the east. The
poorly-attested peoples of Ishuwa, Karkissa, and Lukka are probably
also Indo-Europeans. The Mycenaeans also emerge into history
at this time, having been located in Greece (and later Cyprus)
since at least 2400-2200 BC. Around the same time, an Indo-Aryan
group, perhaps part of the migration towards India, arrives in
northern Mesopotamia to rule the Hurrians as a warrior class called
the Mitanni.
c.1450
BC :
The
Indo-European Phrygians begin to infiltrate from the Balkans into
Bithynia in western Anatolia. Within about two and-a-half centuries
they create their own kingdom in western Anatolia. Various other
Indo-European peoples also populate the area, such as the Thracians.
c.1200
- 900 BC :
Social
collapse and a dark age engulf the Near East. During this period,
various tribal groups found new cities and kingdoms, among them
the Medians and Persians on the Iranian Plateau. Indo-European
groups in Europe filter into Italy, where they form the two main
groups of Italic peoples, the Oscan-Umbrians (including the Umbri)
and Latino-Faliscans (including the Latins).
In Greece, Mycenaean power is gradually eroded by the invading
Dorians from the north, with domination coming by 1140 BC. The
surviving Ionic-speaking Mycenaeans gather and flourish in Athens,
or in conquered Levantine territories which probably include Phillistia,
or in new colonies founded well away from the Dorians, such as
Epirus.
One of the earliest proto-Celtic cultures has already started
to appear in Central Europe, this being the Late Bronze Age Urnfield
culture. Proto-Celtic groups also migrate outwards, some ending
up in Britain, where they eventually push back or integrate with
the indigenous population and settle in the fertile south and
east. They also later infiltrate into Ireland (although see c.2000
BC, above).
![Zagros Mountains](Iran_ZagrosMountains01_full.jpg)
The
Zagros Mountain range provided the Medes with their home, but
it was also the Assyrian gateway into Iran, one that was used
in later attacks on the Indo-European Persians and Medes
1000s
BC? :
Norse
legend mentions gods who are described as members of two groups:
the Aesir and the Vanir. This latter is very suggestive of early
contact between Germanics in Scandinavia and the seagoing Veneti
living along the Gulf of Gdansk and the Vistula. However, the
exact origins of the Vanir and the war between them and the Aesir
are open to intense speculation.
There
is strong evidence among the various peoples of the Indo-European
diaspora that two distinct groups of deities are honoured. This
appears to be best preserved among the Hindus, who talk about
them as Devas (suras) and Asuras (not-suras). Some cultures later
preserve worship of both; others choose one or the other and indicate
some sort of conflict between them. The Aesir appear to be Asuras.
Two Hindu Asuras, known as Thor and Ermin among Germanics, appear
in the Norse pantheon.
One thing that can be said with some certainly is that the Vanir
do not seem to be Suras/Devas. That leaves the possibility that
the Aesir/Vanir war is a legendary account of a human war, but
whether between Germanics against Celts, or against the Kvens
whom they are steadily displacing in southern Scandinavia is unclear,
A war involving Germanics is a certainty; in fact, two wars. It
is already known that the Indo-European tribes who have evolved
into Germanics have entered Scandinavia and have displaced someone,
almost certainly Finno-Ugric speakers. There's also evidence that
Celts enter Jutland. So which of these interactions with the Germans
is the cause of war? That's a very good question. Both have names
that could evolve over time into 'Vanir'. 'Veneti' could lose
its 't' due to softening, while the 'k' of Kven would easily soften
to 'ch', leaving 'ven'. So who are the wanes/vanir? Anything further
would be speculation.
8th
century BC :
An
Indo-European people known as the Armenians first enter Anatolia
from northern Mesopotamia, migrating into the region around Lake
Van which will be their homeland for the next 2300 years. In Europe,
while the Indo-European Celts are beginning to expand from their
traditional territory in southern Germany, the early Germanic
peoples still seem to be occupying a homeland in southern Sweden
and the Jutland peninsula. Around the shores of the Black Sea,
groups such as the Cimmerians, Scythians, and Thracians all appear
to bear similarities in culture and perhaps even language, which
allows them to act in various raids and battles as unified forces
against the established city states of Anatolia and Mesopotamia.
![Gold and amber jewellery](Celtic_Danube_Jewellery01_full.jpg)
Celtic
gold and amber jewellery unearthed from a burial show that this
group of Indo-Europeans had achieved very high levels of skill
in their creations by the first millennium BC
6th
century BC :
The
Indo-European Bactrians are conquered by their cousins, the Persians.
By this stage all of the various Indo-European branches have fully
splintered, and have developed into groups that have their own
individual histories and daughter languages. The proto-Indo-European
language itself will have died out around 2500 BC, when its daughter
languages began to appear, but its core language remains a part
of all its descended forms, even today. A large proportion
of the ancestral steppe homeland of the proto-Indo-Europeans is
today within the borders of Kazakhstan.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsFarEast/
AsiaIndoEuropeans.htm