MITANNI
Hurrian
Empire of Mitanni (Naharina / Hanigalbat) :
c.1500 - c.1330 BC
Centred
on eastern Syria and northern Mesopotamia, geographically-speaking
the Hurrians were situated amongst much better attested ancient
peoples. The Assyrians were immediately to the east. To the north-west
there were the Hittites, to the west and south-west were Syria,
Canaan and Egypt, and to the south lay Babylonia. The middle of
the second millennium was a critical time in the history of the
region. An 'age of internationalism' flourished with large states
reaching out to each other for the first time. There were intensive
contacts between rulers, and the Hurrians played a significant role
in transmitting both goods and ideas back and forth among the great
empires of the area and out into the Mediterranean world.
Although the Hurrians became a dominant political force in their
own right in the region of Urkesh and, separately, in Arrapha, their
rise to greatness seems to have been triggered around four hundred
years after their arrival by a new influx of settlers. Around
1600 BC an Indo-Iranian people called the Mitanni established themselves
amidst the Hurrians as a warrior class. This warrior class seems
to have been an early part of what became a mass migration of Indo-Iranian
peoples into Iran, South Asia, and northern India.
Although
a division is usually applied between those who remained to the
north of the Hindu Kush (Indo-Iranians) and to the south (Indo-Aryans),
the Mitanni seem to exhibit marked Indo-Aryan cultural traits, putting
them at the very forefront of Indo-Aryan expansion and, highly unusually,
not into India but into what is now Iran and beyond, well before
the Indo-Iranian Mannaeans, Medians, and Parsua reached the region.
The main reason for classing the Mitanni as Indo-Aryans is the
fact that the names for their gods seem to exhibit more of an Indo-Aryan
inclination than an Indo-Iranian one. Thieme's 1960 analysis of
gods' names and functions that were known from the Mitanni treaties
of the fourteenth century BC showed that the chain of gods that
were invoked to protect the treaties corresponded to those that
were known from the Vedic hymns (Mitrá-Varun, Indra-... Ashvin,
and Nasatya), and cannot be Indo-Iranian (the reconstruction of
which would give a quite different chain of names: *Mitrá-, *Asur,
and *Vrtraghnas).
The
two peoples - Hurrians and Mitanni - quickly coalesced into a feudal
state and, during the dark age of 1600-1500 BC, this came to dominate
its neighbours. Its capital of Washukkanni has never been positively
identified by modern scholars, but Tell al-Fakhariyeh in modern
Syria is the favoured location. The pharaohs of Egypt corresponded
with the Mitanni rulers of the empire, calling it Naharina
after the Akkadian word for river, and Syrian musicians at Ugarit
performed Hurrian compositions (Assyrians, on the other hand, always
referred to it as Hanigalbat). The later Hurrian empire of
Mitanni became a world power a little before 1500 BC, but survived
for less than three hundred years. By the thirteenth century BC
the Hurrians had been blotted out by the Hittites to the west and
the Assyrians to the east, and they ceased being significant participants
in international affairs. Little of their own writings survived,
other than a treaty with the Hittites.
Dates here should be taken as approximate as they are calculated
against the more concrete dates known for other kingdoms. No king
lists exist for Mitanni and its early history is a mystery. Its
people have been linked by some scholars to the 'Qutils', a group
that has also been linked to the Gutians of the previous millennia,
and to the modern-day Kurds.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Comments on Indo-Iranians and Tokharians: a response to R Heine-Geldern,
Marija Gimbutas (American Anthropologist, 1964.66:893-898),
from Mittani Empire and the Question of Absolute Chronology:
Some Archaeological Considerations, Mirko Novák (published as
part of The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean
in the Second Millennium BC III, Manfred Bietak & Ernst
Czerny (Eds), Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Denkschrift
Band XXXVII; Wien, 2007), from Aryan Gods in the Mitanni Treaties,
Paul Thieme (1960), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World,
4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Haywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000),
from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Volumes
I & II, Routledge, 2000), from The Penguin Atlas of Ancient
History, Colon McEvedy (which misses the period 1600-1300 BC
but shows a Mitanni kingdom in 1300-1000 BC, by which time it had
certainly disappeared - Penguin Books, 1967, revised 2002), from
Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East,
Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Ancient Iraq, Georges
Roux (Penguin Books, 1992), from The Hurrians, Gernot Wilhelm
(Aris & Philips Warminster 1989), from Naming Names: The
2004 Season of Excavations at Ancient Urkesh, Giorgio &
Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (via
External
Link: the Institute of Archaeology, UCLA), and from A
History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der
Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007).)
c.1595
BC :
The
Hittite destruction of Alep and its sack of Babylon allows other
states to emerge, most notably the Hurrian empire of Mitanni,
where the warring Hurrian tribes and city states become united under
one dynasty. Many cities which have previously formed small
states of their own are incorporated into the new empire, including
Andarig, Apum, Carchemish, Nawar, Qatna, Qattara, Razama, Tuttul,
and Urkesh. Nothing is known about the earliest Mitanni kings.
![Map of Ancient Anatolia c.1500 BC](Map1500BC_full.jpg)
The
Hittites were dominant in central Anatolia between 1650-1595 BC,
but were opposed in northern Mesopotamia by the Hurrian empire which
was controlled by the Mitanni
c.1530
- 1500 BC :
Parattarna
I : Probably same as Barattarna, below.
c.1500
- 1490 BC :
Kirta
: Near legendary figure who shaped the empire.
c.1490
- 1470 BC :
Shuttarna
/ Šuttarna I : Son. Or ruled c.1560 BC?
1478
BC :
Egypt
begins to move into Syria, on Mitanni's southern border, reaching
the Euphrates, building ships, and ravaging the banks all the way
from Carchemish to Emar, towns that belong to Mitanni. Ugarit is
taken, but the Egyptians are unable to gain control of the Syrian
interior. Mitanni (known to Egypt as Naharina) apparently
controls Ishuwa during Shuttarna's reign.
c.1475
- 1392 BC :
The
Hurrians annexe the Adasi Assyrians following their breaking of
their vassalage to Babylon and enjoying several generations of independence.
Now the son of the last independent Adasi king is placed on the
Assyrian throne under Mitanni vassalage.
c.1470
- 1450 BC :
Barattarna
/ Baratama
c.1765
- 1760 BC :
Parshatatar
: Named on a seal. May be the same king as Barattarna.
c.1470
- 1450 BC :
Barattarna
(or Parattarna according to a seal later to be issued by his son
which is sent to the king of Arrapha) expands the kingdom westwards
to encompass Alep (which they call Halab). There is a popular rebellion
within Alep that may be encouraged or orchestrated by Mitanni so
that it can secure overlordship. If so, it succeeds when the ruler
of Alep, Ili Illima, is murdered and his son is forced to flee.
Mitanni also secures Idrimi of Alalakh as a vassal while, to
the west, it conquers the state of Kizzuwatna.
![Mitanni warriors](Mitanni_Warriros01_full.jpg)
Mitanni
warriors are shown here dressed in a typical northern Mesopotamian
costume which they most likely picked up following their arrival
in the region in the 1600s BC
1453
BC :
Tuthmosis
III of Egypt defeats Mitanni at the Battle of Megiddo, weakening
the empire. The state of Amurru and several other Mitanni subjects
in southern Syria are lost. However, Arrapha in the east and Terqa
in the south become vassal states by about 1450 BC, and Mitanni
becomes involved in the Hittite succession war at around the same
time.
c.1440
- 1410 BC :
Saushtatar
/ Saustatar : Son. Contemporary of Niqmepuh
of Alakhtum.
c.1430
BC :
Ishuwa
is defeated by the Hittite king, Tudhaliya II (I), and then sides
with Mitanni, probably for protection against their more aggressive
western neighbour. Tudhaliya is unable to take Ishuwa, revealing
the limits of Hittite power in this period, so he successfully attacks
Kizzuwatna instead. Whichever side is responsible for the outbreak
of hostilities, the Ishuwans respond by becoming more hostile to
the Hittites in subsequent years as Mitanni to the south seeks a
strong alliance with Ishuwa against their common enemy.
1420
BC :
The
empire stretches from the Mediterranean (including Alalakh in northern
Syria), all the way to the northern Zagros Mountains (including
Nuzi, Kurrukhanni, and Arrapha (roughly corresponding to modern
Kurdistan), and into western Iran). The northern boundary dividing
Mitanni from the Hittites and the other Hurrian states is never
fixed, with Kizzuwatna and Ishuwa being used as buffer states between
the two. The latter now becomes a vassal of Mitanni after it
is attacked by the Hittites. Also, friendly relations are finally
established between Tuthmose IV of Egypt and Artatama I soon after
this date.
![](Ancient_Alalakh01_full.jpg)
This
view of part of Alalakh's present-day excavated remnants shows
the Level VII (Middle Bronze Age) city gate and the entrance into
one of the guard chambers, all of which would have been destroyed
by the Hittite attack of about 1650-1620 BC, after which Mitanni
eventually gained control
c.1415
BC :
Saushtatar
reduces Assyria and humiliates its inhabitants by sending the doors
of the famous temple of Ashur back to Washukkanni. Records of Assyrian
rulers after this point become confused.
Parrattarna
II : It is uncertain if this king existed.
c.1410
- 1400 BC :
Artatama
I : Married his daughter to Pharaoh Thutmose
IV.
c.1400
BC :
Sunassura
of Kizzuwatna is a contemporary of the Hittite king, Tudhaliya II
(I), and then his successor, Arnuwanda I. Allegiance is shifted
back to the Hittites in this period, as the state becomes a battleground
between them and Mitanni, but Arnuwanda overruns and conquers the
state, making Sunassura a vassal. At about the same time, further
to the south, an apparent vassal king is allowed to rule in Qatna.
c.1400
- 1385 BC :
Shuttarna
/ Šuttarna II : Married his daughter to
Pharaoh Amenhotep III.
c.1392
BC :
The
Hittites in Anatolia wrest control of the Assyrians from Mitanni.
The period of Mitanni-dominated Assyrian vassal kings ends as the
Assyrians gain more freedom under their new overlords. The Hittites
also appear to annexe the Mitanni capital itself to their vassal
state of Kizzuwatna, if only briefly.
c.1385
- 1380 BC :
Artashumara
: Son. Murdered by Uthi and replaced by his younger brother.
c.1380
BC :
Artashumara
is murdered by Uthi, and the latter places his young brother, Tushratta,
on the throne, with himself acting as regent. Tushratta's brother,
Artatama II, sets up a rival kingship in the east of the state.
He initially receives support from the Hittites who are no doubt
only too delighted to be able to encourage internecine feuding within
the empire.
c.1380
- 1350 BC :
Tushratta
/ Tusratta : Brother. Assassinated.
c.1380
- 1370? BC :
Uthi
/ UD-hi : Regent and murderer of Artashumara. Executed.
Tushratta
only manages to re-establish friendly relations with Egypt when
he has Uthi and all his supporters executed. Later he marries his
daughter to Pharaoh Amenhotep III, and the two kings (and later
Amenhotep's son, Amenhotep IV) conduct a long and detailed correspondence,
mostly on commerce, Tushratta's desire for gold (to fight his civil
war), and marriage. Tushratta is considered by some - extremely
controversially - to be a proto-Croatian.
![Tushratta tablet to Amenhotep III](AmenhotepIII_Tablet01_full.jpg)
The
cuneiform tablet inscribed with a letter from Tushratta, king
of Mitanni, to Pharaoh Amenhotep III, covers various subjects
such as the killing of the murderers of the Mitanni king's brother
and a fight against the Hittites
c.1380?
- ? BC :
Artatama
II : Brother of Tushratta. Rival claimant. Based in the
east.
c.1375
BC :
The Kaskans suffer the loss of their grain to locusts so, in search
of food, they join up with Hayasa-Azzi, Ishuwa, and the Lukka, as
well as other Hittite enemies. The devastation to the grain crops
may also have been suffered by others, making it not only easy to
get them all to unite but highly necessary, and the Hittites may
be taken by surprise by the sheer forcefulness of the attack.
It
is possible that Ishuwa receives support, or at least encouragement,
from Tushratta of Mitanni to join the attack upon the Hittites.
It would certainly be in Tushratta's interest to do anything he
can to weaken potential Hittite support for his brother and rival.
Recent Hittite resurgence indeed does suffer a knock when their
fort of Masat is burned down, but then the capital, Hattusa, is
itself attacked and burned. This disaster personally weakens the
position of the Hittite king but seemingly does little to set back
the Hittites themselves.
c.1360s
BC :
To support the idea that the Hittites are little-affected by the
'grain war' of about 1375 BC, the Hurrians are devastatingly defeated
by the Hittites in a shock reversal of fortune, also losing territory
in Syria to them and, now a Hittite vassal, the kingdom rapidly
declines. A confused period develops with rival claimants and short-lived
rulers hastening the process of decline.
c.1350
BC :
Tushratta is assassinated (possibly by Shuttarna III), sparking
a fresh dynastic struggle between his now exiled son and his nephew.
The important administrative centre of Nuzi on the edge of the kingdom
is lost to the resurgent Assyrians, and it seems likely that Arrapha
is lost at the same time.
c.1350
BC :
Shuttarna
/ Šuttarna III : Son. Gained overall control.
Gaining
overall control in Mitanni, Shuttarna shifts his allegiance to Assyria.
The Hittite king, Suppiluliuma, is enraged by this and decides to
support the exiled Kili-Teshub, son of Tushratta. He provides Kili-Teshub
with troops and together they defeat Shuttarna. Kili-Teshub is placed
on the throne of what remains of Mitanni (the west of the state)
under the name Shattiwaza, is married off to one of the Hittite
king's daughters, and becomes a vassal.
![The 'Aleppo Treaty' of the fourteenth century BC](Ancient_Alep01_full.jpg)
The
'Aleppo Treaty' was drawn up on a cuneiform tablet between Mursili
I of the Hittites and Talmi-Sharruma of Alep in the mid-fourteenth
century, reflecting the increasing Hittite influence in the region
at the expense of the Mitanni
By
the 1320s BC, Syria falls under Hittite overlordship while the Assyrians
dominate the regions which had previously formed eastern Mitanni.
The territory of Ashtata and the city of Carchemish are given to
one of Suppiluliuma's sons.
c.1350
- 1320 BC :
Shattiwaza
/ Mattiwaza / Kili-Teshub : Son of Tushratta. Exiled. Returned
as a Hittite vassal.
c.1339
BC :
By
now, the Mitanni warrior class has been totally absorbed into the
Hurrian populace, leaving little trace of its existence including
its Indo-Aryan language. It takes close examination by modern scholars
to discover that they are of an Indo-Iranian heritage, and quite
probably specifically Indo-Aryan.
c.1320
- 1300 BC :
Shattuara
/ Šattuara I : Son. Became an Assyrian vassal.
c.1300
- 1270 BC :
The
now-independent Assyrians gradually take control of Mitanni (which
they have always referred to as Hanigalbat) from a weakening
Hittite regime, leaving the native dynasty in place as vassals.
The remnants of the Mitanni state regularly resist, seeking help
from the Hittites and the newly arriving Aramaeans. Wasashatta himself
resists and his forces and capital city are crushed. He is deported
to Assur along with much of the royal family.
c.1300
- 1280 BC :
Wasashatta
/ Wasašatta : Son. Captured and deported to Assur.
c.1280
- 1270 BC :
Shattuara
/ Šattuara II : Son or nephew. May be the same as Shattuara
I.
c.1270
BC :
Possibly
one of the few native nobles left in Hanigalbat, Shattuara rebels
against Assyrian overlordship, but his forces are crushed by Shalmaneser
I. Hanigalbat (eastern Mitanni) falls totally under Assyrian control
and part of the population is deported to serve as cheap labour.
An Assyrian grand vizier is brought in to control Hangilbat directly.
c.1270
- 1240 BC :
Ili-ipada
: Assyrian grand vizier who served as king of Hanigalbat.
c.1240?
BC :
A second rebellion against Assyrian overlordship in the northern
and western areas of Hanigalbat leads Tukulti-Ninurta I to annexe
the entirety of northern Syria east of the Euphrates.
c.1200
BC :
The
international system has recently been creaking under the strain
of increasing waves of peasants and the poor leaving the cities
and abandoning crops. Around the end of this century the entire
region is also hit by drought and the loss of surviving crops. Food
supplies dwindle and raids by people who have banded together greatly
increases until, by about 1200 BC, this flood has turned into a
tidal wave.
Centralised administration disappears completely - the Hittite empire
is looted and destroyed by various surrounding peoples, including
the Kaskans and the Sea Peoples (and perhaps even selectively by
its own populace). The subjugated Hurrians are absorbed into
Assyrian and later cultures and leave few traces of their own culture
or language behind them, although they can possibly be associated
with the later Armenians and Kurds.
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Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/
AnatoliaHurrianMitanni.htm