c.5000
BC :
Gebal is
founded as a permanent settlement.
c.4000
BC :
Sidon is founded as a permanent settlement. This is at the same
time as a structure of concentric stone circles known as Rujm
al-Hiri is built as an astrological temple or observatory, or
perhaps a burial complex. A 2011 theory proposes that it is part
of an ancient method of disposing of the dead, where the flesh
is removed from a body prior to the bones being buried in an ossuary,
a common practise in the region at this time.
The site's name means 'stone heap of the wild cats' in Arabic.
In Hebrew it is known as Galgal Refaim, or the 'wheel of ghosts'.
It lies close to the militarised Golam Heights in modern Israel
and is therefore seldom visited. It consists of four circles -
the outermost more than 152 metres across - made up of an estimated
42,000 tons of basalt stone, the remains of massive walls that
experts believe could rise as high as nine metres. It is an enormous
feat of construction carried out by a society about which little
is known. It seems likely that Rujm al-Hiri serves residents of
villages nearby that are part of the same Chalcolithic Period
agrarian civilisation that exists in the region between 4500 and
3500 BC. There is a tomb at the centre of the site which it is
generally agreed is added millennium or two later (but still to
early for Og of Bashan).
![Rujm al-Hiri](Canaan_Rujm-al-Hiri_full.jpg)
The
site at Rujm al-Hiri dates to 4000 BC, but it was re-used around
3000-2000 BC to house a tomb, legendarily belonging to King Og
of Bashan (who actually lived about 1135 BC)
c.3000
BC :
Biruta is
founded as a permanent settlement.
c.2800
BC :
Hazor is
founded as a permanent settlement.
c.2000
BC :
Arvad is founded as a permanent settlement. Perhaps two hundred
years before this the settlement of Ai (now in the Palestinian
highlands of the West Bank) is destroyed. Archaeology proves this
level of destruction, which had previously been ascribed to the
Israelite Settlement Period (about 1170 BC), but the cause is
unknown.
c.2000
- 1800 BC :
Egypt
maintains a trading presence in the region.
Amorites
infiltrate the area and capture some cities by force, and create
others, but once they settle in, the area becomes prosperous again.
The principle Canaanite cities or small states at this time include
Ammon, Amrit, Arvad, Biruta, Edom, Gebal, Gerar, Hazor, Shalem,
Sidon, and Tyre.
Biblical
Canaanite City States / Habiru :
By around 1750 BC, the time in which the Old Testament claims
that areas of Canaan were being settled by the early Israelites,
the Syrian states were apparently dependencies of Elam for a short
time. However, the existence of the Biblical Elamite king, Chedorlaomer,
cannot be confirmed. The local Canaanite city states reported
by the Old Testament in Genesis 14 are listed here, but as the
Old Testament was written down over a thousand years after these
events, the names became very distorted and are subject to much
modern research regarding possible historical equivalents. Josephus
also provides an interpretation of the names, shown after the
Biblical versions here.
Outside the cities of the Levant there were populations of habiru,
a range of outsiders who ranged from semi-nomadic social outcasts
and those who had fled the debt-ridden city system, to unemployed
farm labourers and mounted mercenary archers. Between 2000-1200
BC, these groups plagued the established order with frequent raids
and looting, and the attitude to them was invariably hostile.
In the Egyptian Amarna letters they were constantly presented
as a threat to the stability of the region, although the regional
manpower shortage was sometimes so acute that they could still
be hired as labourers or mercenaries.
Originally the habiru were thought to be the early Israelites,
with 'habiru' becoming Hebrew, but more recent thought suggests
the Hebrews may only have been one group of habiru, probably
not even aligned with the groups in the north, or else not related
to them at all. The Hebrews certainly caused a few troublesome
ripples of their own, migrating into Canaan from Mesopotamia,
and also when they supposedly invaded Canaan in the twelfth century
BC through Edom and Moab, penetrating as far north as Amurru in
Syria. The context in which the habiru were mentioned differed
depending upon where the references were found. Although it originally
seems to have been used for any marginal people who lived outside
state controls, there is nothing to preclude one such group becoming
the later Hebrews. The peak of activity for the habiru
seems to have been during the great social collapse at the end
of the thirteenth century BC, when these rogue groups became nothing
less than organised bands of raiders who were often lumped together
under the heading 'Sea Peoples'.
Akkadian sources which date to the earliest years of the existence
of Moab mention nomadic groups along the Trans-Jordanian highlands
whom they term the Shutu. These groups extended deep into Mesopotamia,
probably occupying the edges of the habitable zone there. Speculation
about the Shutu mentions that the name may be a variant of the
Egyptian term 'Shasu', Semitic cattle-herding nomads who operated
in a clan system with tribal chieftains. While the historical
identity of these Shutu is unknown, they have been linked to the
Moabites and Ammonites, and may well have been amongst those groups
that were labelled as habiru.
In fact the term habiru is also found in Akkadian sources
(as 'hapiru') and in Sumerian (as 'Sagaz'). Texts mentioning the
hapiru can be found as far back as the third dynasty of
Ur, placing them sometime between 2112-2004 BC. But the attractiveness
of equating them with the Hebrews gave way as soon as it was discovered
that the 'apiru/SA.GAZ' were found in other texts as far afield
as Babylon, Mari, Nuzi, Boghazkoi, and the aforementioned Ur.
(Additional information by Sean Bambrough (on the Amarna letters),
from The Amarna Letters, William L Moran, 1992, from A
Test of Time, David Rohl (Arrow, 2001), from Theological
Dictionary of the Old Testament, David Noel Freedman, B E
Willoughby, & Heinz-Josef Fabry (G Johannes Botterweck &
Helmer Ringgren, Eds, William B Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999),
from A History of Israel: From the Bronze Age through the Jewish
Wars, Walter C Kaiser Jr (Broadman & Holman Publishers,
1998), from Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities,
Flavius Josephus, and from the NOVA/PBS documentary series, The
Bible's Buried Secrets, first broadcast 18 November 2008.)
fl
c.1750 BC :
Amraphel
: In
Shinar (Babylon?).
c.1750
BC :
Shinar,
or Sennaar, is equated with Babylon, making the king identifiable
with Hammurabi, although this theory appears to be falling out
of favour with many scholars. Amraphel, allied with 'Chedorlaomer'
of Elam, 'Arioch of Ellasar' (originally thought to be Rim-Sin
of Larsa, but now thought more likely to be the early Hurrian
King Ariukki), and 'Tidal, king of nations' (probably the Hittite
king, Tudhaliya I), attack the early Israelites during a general
conflict. After twelve years of paying tribute, the following
Canaanite 'five cities of the plain' have rebelled:
fl
c.1750 BC :
Bera
/ Ballas : In
Sodom. No trace of Sodom has ever been found.
fl c.1750 BC :
Birsha
/ Barsas : In
Gomorrah.
fl c.1750 BC :
Shinab
/ Senabar : In
Admah / Adama.
fl c.1750 BC :
Shemeber
/ Sumobor : In
Zeboiim / Zeboyim.
fl c.1750 BC :
Zoar
: In
Bela.
c.1749
BC :
Despite their resistance, the rebellious city states of Sodom,
Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Bela are defeated within a year.
The city of Salem also figures in this period in connection with
Abraham of the Israelites.
During the rebellion, Sodom is aided by Lot, adopted son of Abraham.
Thereafter he is found living within the city itself, shortly
before it is destroyed (as Josephus says) by means of God casting
'a thunderbolt upon the city, and set[ting] it on fire, with its
inhabitants; and laid waste the country with the like burning.'
Curiously, after this destruction, the vale that is home to the
destroyed city is afterwards called Lake Asphaltitis.
c.1503
BC :
Thutmose I invades the Levant and Syria, sweeping through much
of it. Egypt establishes a presence but does not appear to remain
in force.
1453
BC :
Egypt reasserts its authority in the region by conquering territory
in the Levant and Syria as far north as Amurru. The Egyptians
establish three provinces which are named Amurru (in southern
Syria), Upe (in the northern Levant, which may correspond to Damas),
and Canaan (in the southern Levant, which includes Gebal). Each
one is governed by an Egyptian official. Native dynasts are allowed
to continue their rule over the small states, but have to provide
annual tribute.
c.1400
BC :
Amorites
capture the previously Amorite and Canaanite city of Bashan in
Syria.
c.1371
- 1358 BC :
The
Amarna letters between Egypt and Assyria, and the city states
of Syria and Canaan, describe the disruptive activities of the
habiru, painting them as a threat to the stability of the
region.
Rohl's discredited theory is that the habiru of the Amarna
letters are the Israelites of David. Findings may indicate that
the three years of drought, famine, and plague of the Amarna letters
and those of David's time may be same, but of course there is
nothing to say that similar events could not be repeated over
the course of the three or four hundred years between the usual
dating for these two. Another theory is that Moses (an individual
who is probably much closer to the period in which the Amarna
letters are written than is David) is 'the rebel Mesh' of amelut-sagaz-Mesh
(habiru) of the Amarna letters.
![Canaanite bronze figure](Tyre_Statue01_full.jpg)
This
photo shows a bronze figure from Tyre, created between 1400-1200
BC and probably representing the Canaanite god Baal in the role
of a warrior
c.1340
BC :
Sensing
the weakness of the neighbouring Mitanni empire (as well as of
Egypt), Aziru of Amurru makes a secret deal with the Hittite king,
Suppiluliuma. He also establishes himself as a strong king in
the region, taking control in Damas and even going so far as to
conquer the city of Sumur, where the Egyptian representative has
his residence. The restoration of the city is demanded, but Aziru
forces Egypt to recognise him first. However, relations with Egypt
are soured by constant complaints from Gebal.
c.1310
BC :
In
the lead up to their confrontation with Egypt at the Battle of
Kadesh, the Hittites conduct raids deep into Canaan. Rib-Adda,
king of Gebal, reports to his Egyptian overlords on additional
and apparently devastating raids by the habiru. He mentions
the nearby minor city of Irqata (or Arqa, Biblical Arkite, which
is now a village near Miniara in the Akkar district of northern
Lebanon, 22km north-east of Tripoli, near the coast). Apparently
the people of Irqata are among the last in their area to hold
out against the habiru, along with another minor city,
Sumur, and Gebal itself. Only Gebal remains unconquered.
fl
c.1310 BC :
Aduna
: 'King
of Irqata'. Killed by the habiru.
fl
c.1310 BC :
?
: 'King
of Sumur'. Killed by the habiru.
c.1200
- 1020 BC :
There
is general collapse in the region as instability grips the Mediterranean
coast for some decades, with the first, and biggest victim being
the Hittite empire. It is quite possible that the habiru
play some part in this. One theory holds that they unite as an
identifiable Canaanite people around this time and begin to attack
and conquer many of the local city states under the collective
name of Israelites. Their main opponents in the south are the
newly arrived Philistines and in the north the incoming Aramaeans,
while some of the Sea Peoples also settle along the coast and
probably contribute their skills to the region's maritime society.
The ('old') Canaanites are reduced to owning the shores of Phoenicia,
where cities such as Sidon and Gebal survive, and become the sea
traders known as the Phoenicians.
It has been strongly suggested that the Israelites themselves
are also Canaanites, and that the traditional exodus never occurs.
This theory seems to be backed up by archaeological finds (although
a temporary event such as an exodus would be hard to locate archaeologically).
In recent years this idea has been strengthened. The climate-induced
social collapse of the end of the thirteenth century BC - and
the long lead-up towards it of perhaps a century - results in
groups of dispossessed people congregating in Canaan in new groups
(as mentioned above). Known by the established powers by various
names, including habiru, these groups would appear in essence
to be drop-outs from established society, people who want to find
a new way of living outside what they see as an unjust and restrictive
society. Following the social collapse, which terminates the Hittites
and results in the declining fortunes of Egypt, these new communities
seemingly emerge as a new people, with new, unfussy pottery and
a monotheistic culture. They have formed the people known as the
Israelites.
Midianites
:
The Midianites were mentioned in the Old Testament as a minor
group of 'city states' which lay on the southern borders of Edom,
along the Gulf of Elath and bordered to their own south by the
Arab tribes. The Moabites were nomads (which suggests that their
city states were nothing like as established or permanent as those
in the north of Canaan) and they controlled parts of the Arabah,
the Negeb, and the Sinai. They are thought to have been connected
to the Moabites through their religious practises, but little
else seems to be known about them, although one opinion has suggested
that they were Arabs rather than Semitics. They are also mentioned
in the Qur'an as the Madyans.
c.1230
BC :
Moses begins to lead the loose confederation of Israelite tribes
out of Egypt, shortly after his marriage to a Midianite woman,
Zipporah daughter of Jethro the Midian priest whom he had met
in the Sinai.
c.1198
BC :
Moab is defeated and subjugated by the Israelites, as are a number
of minor city states, including those of the Midianites and various
other Canaanite cities.
c.1198
BC :
Balaam
: First-known
ruler of the Midianites.
c.1198
BC :
Evi
c.1198
BC :
Rekem
c.1198
BC :
Zur
c.1198
BC :
Hur
c.1198
BC :
Reba
c.1120
BC :
Gideon of Israel defeats the Midianites after what appears to
be an attempt to cattle-rustle and steal crops by the Midianites
and their allies, the Amalekites.
c.1080
BC :
Israel is subdued by the Midianites to the south (probably only
on a very local and temporary basis).
Jebusites
:
Around
the 1170s BC, the Israelite tribes are estimated to have been
conquering various Canaanite cities during the creation of their
own state. By this stage a Canaanite tribe known as the Jebusites,
which traditionally had already been occupying the mountains near
the city of Shalem in the Judean Mountains, had also occupied
the city itself. According to the Old Testament, the city's king
led the Jebusites from the following cities against the Israelites,
but they were totally defeated and their cities were incorporated
into the new Israelite state.
(Additional information from The Amarna Letters, William
L Moran, 1992, and the Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance
of the Bible, Geoffrey Wigoder (Gen Ed), 1986.)
c.1170s
BC :
Hoham
: King
of Hebron (then called Kirjath-arba).
c.1170s
BC :
Piram
: King
of Jarmuth.
c.1170s
BC :
Japhia
: King
of Lachish (Tell Lachish/Tell ed-Duweir).
c.1170s
BC :
Debir
: King
of Eglon (Tell el-Hesi?).
c.1170s
BC :
Adonizedec
of Shalem leads the fragmented Canaanite tribes against Joshua
of the Israelites, but they are defeated at Gibeon and apparently
suffer again at Beth-horon, not only from attacks by their pursuers,
but also from a great hail storm. The five allied kings take refuge
in a cave at Makkedah and are imprisoned there until after the
battle, when Joshua commands that they be brought before him.
They are brought out, humiliated, and put to death, and Jebusite
Shalem is conquered. They take control of the city but apparently
lose it again twenty years later during an invasion by the Philistines.
975
BC :
The Jebusite king Araunah is mentioned in the Old Testament in
relation to Shalem during the formation of the Israelite kingdom,
so he is probably the city's ruler. The Jebusites have been resisting
Israelite attempts to re-take the city for some time, resorting
to mocking their assailants for their failures. Now King David
manages to conquer the city once and for all, taking it as his
new capital and renaming it hebiru-Shalem, or Jerusalem.
From this point onwards, the city serves as Israel's spiritual
centre, as well as its administrative capital. When Israel divides
into Samaria and Judah in 928 BC, Jerusalem serves as Judah's
capital.
The
Israelite Settlement Period :
The period of Israelite settlement after the supposed exodus from
Egypt is a controversial and confusing time. General instability
in the region had seen the fall of the Hittite empire in Anatolia,
the Canaanites were being reduced in territory to the shores of
Lebanon (to eventually become the sea traders known as the Phoenicians),
the Philistines and other Sea Peoples were first settling on the
lower coast of the Levant, and various neo-Hittite city states
were arising in northern Syria, many of which came into contact
with the Israelites.
These, then, are the Canaanite cities said to have been conquered
by the Israelites, along with (very) approximate dates in which
each city was defeated or conquered. The evidence for an Israelite
conquest is very controversial, relying almost entirely on the
Old Testament and showing very little basis in written documents
or archaeology of the period. If it was a conquest rather than
a simple transition between one ruling group of Canaanites and
another then it must have been very small-scale in terms of regional
politics, and probably nowhere near as important as it is portrayed
by the Old Testament.
Quite
the opposite, it seems. A good deal of recent archaeological examination
of the region has almost entirely disproved the idea of a sweeping
conquest by a newly-arrived militaristic group and their followers.
(Additional information from the Illustrated Dictionary &
Concordance of the Bible, Geoffrey Wigoder (Gen Ed, 1986),
and from the NOVA/PBS documentary series, The Bible's Buried
Secrets, first broadcast 18 November 2008..)
c.1200
BC :
Arad
the Canaanite : Ruled
the south.
c.1198
BC :
The Israelites
conquer Moab.
c.1170
BC :
The
Canaanite king of Shalem leads the fragmented Jebusites against
Joshua of the Israelites, but they are instead defeated and conquered,
with their cities being incorporated into the Israelite state.
Shalem becomes the Israelite capital of Jerusalem. The archaeological
dating for the destruction of Jericho is actually dated to about
1500 BC, right in the middle of the period in which the Israelites
are supposedly in Egypt.
c.1170
BC :
?
: King
of Jericho.
c.1170
BC :
?
: King
of Ai, near Beth-el.
c.1170
BC :
The
supposed Israelite destruction of Ai cannot be confirmed. The
archaeological evidence does show a layer of destruction for this
city, which is located in the highlands of the modern Palestinian
West Bank, but this layer has been dated to 2200 BC.
c.1160s
BC :
The
Jebusites are conquered by the Israelites, as are many other Canaanite
city states situated in and around what becomes Judah and lower
Syria, with Dor and Gezer amongst their number. Referring to them
as city states may be a little grand. Probably they are little
more than obscure settlements and small tribes that are taken
over piecemeal.
c.1160s
BC :
?
: King
of Hormah.
c.1160s
BC :
?
: King
of Arad.
c.1160s
BC :
?
: King
of Libnah.
c.1160s
BC :
?
: King
of Adullam.
c.1160s
BC :
?
: King
of Makkedah.
c.1160s
BC :
?
: King
of Beth-el.
c.1160s
BC :
?
: King
of Tappuah.
c.1160s
BC :
?
: King
of Hepher.
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Aphek.
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Lasharon.
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Shimron-meron.
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Taanach.
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Megiddo (the Bible's Armageddon).
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Kadesh (under control of Ashtata?).
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Carmel.
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Gilgal.
c.1150s
BC :
?
: King
of Tirzah. This city was later the original capital of Samaria.
c.1125
BC :
The
kings below are all allies of Hazor in the coalition of the 'kings
of Canaan' against Joshua and the Israelites at the 'waters of
Megiddo'. Hazor itself is sacked and burned. Archaeological dating
of its destruction produces a point around 1250 BC, more than
a century before the approximate dating used here that seems to
fit best with Old Testament events.
c.1125
BC :
Jobab
: King
of Madon. Ally of Hazor.
c.1125
BC :
Shimron
: King
of Achshaph. Ally of Hazor.
c.1125
BC :
Hermon
: King
of the Hivites of the land of Mizpah. Ally of Hazor.
Phoenician
& Canaanite City States :
The 'Phoenicians' would not have recognised this term in relation
to them. They were Canaanites, the descendants of peoples who
had previously populated much of the Levant, but who were now
hemmed in on a long Mediterranean coastal strip by various more
recent arrivals, such as the Israelites (largely Canaanites themselves),
the Philistines, the Sea Peoples, and the Aramaeans. Relatively
unscathed by the chaos of the twelfth century collapse, from this
fertile region they quickly prospered. Replacing the region's
previous dominant trading power, Ugarit, they created an even
greater trading empire of their own which stretched across the
Mediterranean. Some scholars argue that because their sailing
ability, which was not well attested before the collapse, suddenly
became very pronounced afterwards, the Phoenicians may have intermingled
with some of the Sea Peoples to produce this more dynamic branch
of Canaanites.
Their civilisation was organised into city states on the same
pattern as the ancient Greeks and Syrians. Each city state was
politically independent, and would suffer domination by another
city, come into conflict with it, or prosper through intermarriage
and trade. Sidon and Tyre were the most powerful Phoenician cities,
but in time the colonies in North Africa proved to be more powerful
than either of them. Close allies with the Israelites, the Phoenicians
intermarried with them from the eleventh century onwards, and
greatly influenced Israel's architecture.
![Phoenicians shifting cedarwood from shore to land](Sidon_Vessels01_long.jpg)
Phoenician
& Canaanite City States :
(Additional information from A Royal Dedicatory Inscription
from Ekron, S Gitin, T Dothan, & J Naveh (Israel Exploration
Journal 47, 1997), from The History of Esarhaddon (Son of Sennacherib)
King of Assyria, BC 681-688, Ernest A Budge, and from External
Link: Encyclopaedia Britannica.)
The
principle Phoenician cities along the coast are Biruta, Byblos,
Hazor, Tyre, Sarepta, and Sidon. Other Canaanite cities include
Ammon, Dor, Edom, and Moab, while the Philistines establish city
states of their own further south. Arabs from the peninsula, who
are camel nomads, are in close contact with he Syro-Palestinian
region and provide luxury goods such as incense from Saba.
1104
BC :
This is the traditional date upon which the colony of Gadir is
founded in southern Iberia. No archaeological evidence for occupation
at this date can be found but, as with the colony of Utica, this
is probably because these posts are temporary at first, and are
not permanently occupied until the ninth century.
A
colony is also founded at Utica, and further colonies are founded
(and permanently settled between the eighth and seventh centuries)
at Hadrumetum (Susah, Sousse), Lixus, Mogador (Essaouira, the
most distant Phoenician colony), Siga (Rachgoun), and Tipasa (east
of Cherchell). Finds of a similar age have been made at Motya
(Mozia) in Sicily, Nora (Nurri), Sulcis, and Tharros (San Giovanni
di Sinis), Bithia, Bosa, Caralis, Nora, Olbia, Sulcis, and Tharros
on Sardinia, and Gadir and Almuńecar in Spain.
c.1050
BC :
A
weakened Egypt loses its remaining imperial possessions in Canaan.
The Phoenician city states expand their territory at this time,
but are checked in the south by the Philistines. Archaeological
evidence for a mass settling of people in this southern region
and at this time has yet to be found, suggesting that the Philistines
are formed of small, mobile groups who take a while to establish
themselves and take control of the region.
Shiloh
is a Canaanite town that has become the central sanctuary site
of the Israelite confederacy during the period of the judges.
Following the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Tabernacle and
the Ark of the Covenant had been installed in Shiloh, but the
Ark is now captured by the Philistines during a battle at Ebenezer
(site unknown), and Shiloh is soon afterwards destroyed. Excavations
at Khirbat Sayūn in modern Jordan during 1920-1932 suggest
that Shiloh remains a ruin for several centuries. The Philistines
decide to return the Ark after about seven months.
c.1035
BC :
The kingdom of Israel is founded while the Phoenicians are creating
trading posts along the North African coast, such as Carthage
and Utica, in southern Italy, in the Mediterranean, such as Kition
on Cyprus and on Corsica, and in southern Spain, such as Gadir
and Tarshish. Merchants are also known to trade with the occupants
of the Land's End region of Britain, the ancestors of the Dumnonii
tribe, and general opinion is that these traders are Phoenicians,
although there is no surviving proof.
fl
c.1000? BC :
Rehob
: King
of Zobah.
fl
c.970? BC :
Hadadezer
: Son.
King of Zobah. City fell to David and the Israelites.
c.970?
BC :
The
Old Testament recounts that 'when David destroyed Zobah's army,
Rezon gathered a band of men around him and became their leader;
they went to Aram Damascus (Damas) where they settled and took
control'. This Rezon is a young officer of Zobah, the son of Eliada,
who escapes the city's fall and establishes himself in Damas,
where he 'founds' Aram Damascus - in other words he takes control
of it with his band of men - and severely threatens Israel and
its northern successor, Samaria. The changes mean that Damas also
replaces the eclipsed Zobah as the main centre of Aramaean power
in the Levant.
928
- 840 BC :
The
break-up of Israel in 928 BC allows Damas to rapidly grow in power
and at times even threaten the existence of its southern neighbour.
It also gains the important caravan routes westwards to the Phoenician
ports, bringing immense wealth into the city.
In
the ninth century, the Assyrians invade and subjugate Syrian states,
including Bit Adini, Bit Agusi, Carchemish, and Pattin, by which
time many small and semi-obscure cities have arisen, such as Gamgum
and Gan Dunias, along with the kingdom of Kedar in eastern Syria.
However, the Assyrians don't have it all their own way. In 853
BC they are defeated by a coalition of Syrian and Canaanite states
which seems to be led by Damas, and around 840 BC it is Damas
which is the dominant city state in the region, not the Assyrians.
![Map of Canaan and Syria c.850 BC](Map850BC_full.jpg)
When
the Neo-Assyrian empire threatened the various city states of
southern Syria and Canaan around 853 BC, they united to protect
their joint territory - successfully it seems, at least for a
time
738
- 676 BC :
The
end of the region known as Philistia (Palestine), as well as the
remaining cultural Philistines, now comes when the Assyrians sack
the remaining towns and cities and sells the inhabitants into
slavery. The city of Ashkelon may be the last to fall, in 701
BC. Subsequent kings appear in Ekron (at least), but they write
their inscriptions in a Canaanite dialect that is very close to
Phoenician. All of the Phoenician states also become vassals of
Assyria, but local arrangements for governance are left in place.
However, the conquest is not total. In 679 BC Esarhaddon of Assyria
conducts a campaign against the Cimmerians. He defeats them and
their leader, Teuspa, in the region of Hubusna (probably Hupisna-Cybistra),
but the area is not pacified. In the same year Esarhaddon's troops
also fight a war in Hilakku (Khilakku), and a few years later
they punish the Anatolian prince of Kundu (Cyinda) and Sissu (Sisium,
modern Sis), who has allied himself with Phoenician rebels against
Assyrian rule. The regions to the north of the Cilician plain
repeatedly cause trouble for Assyria.
![Cimmerian warriors](Cimmerians_Warriors01_full.jpg)
This
image shows Cimmerians battling early Greeks - prior to the advent
of accepted 'Classical' Greece - with the mounted Cimmerians warriors
apparently being accompanied by their dogs
676
- 612 BC :
Assyria conquers all of Phoenicia. However, despite being under
the nominal control of the Assyrians, the Phoenicians continue
their highly profitable trading enterprises in the western Mediterranean.
They begin to move farther inland on Sardinia in their hunt for
important natural resources such as lead and silver mines. They
establish a fort on Monte Sirai, the oldest-known Phoenician military
building in the west, presumably to protect their acquisitions
from an increasingly hostile native Sardi people.
612
- 573 BC :
The Phoenician cities appear to regain their freedom after the
destruction of the Assyrian empire. Illusions of freedom are insubstantial,
however. A resurgent Egypt battles against Babylonia towards the
end of the seventh century, conquering and then losing control
of Syria and then barely being able to hold onto Canaan.
573
- 539 BC :
Having already secured Syria and destroyed the Assyrian empire,
Babylonia now conquers Phoenicia. As a result, many Phoenicians
emigrate to the colonies, especially Carthage, which quickly rises
to become a major power.
Later
Phoenicia :
Persian Satraps of Phoenicia
Taken by Cyrus the Great as part of his capture of Babirush (Babylon)
in 539 BC, the city states of Phoenicia were added to the Persian
empire. Under its control, Phoenicia formed part of a large satrapy
which was commanded from Babirush. This was the senior great satrapy
in the region. The main satrapy of Athura (former Assyria) fell
within Babylonia's administrative umbrella and was subservient
to it just as was Phoenicia. It was Strabo who reported (accurately)
that Athura consisted of (old) Assyria along with Khilakku, Syria,
and Phoenicia.
Later Syria seems to have been established as a satrapy in its
own right away from oversight by Babylon, under the name of Ebimari
or Ebir-nāri (Babylonian) or Abar-Nahra (Aramaic-Persian).
Once Syria was stripped away from Athura, thereby lessening Babylonia's
own importance, the post of Babylonian satrap was poorly attested.
The province extended from the Amanus to Sinai and included Salamis
on Cyprus. The administrative divisions of the Syrian province
were likely the same as during Neo-Babylonian rule (Damas, Hamath,
and Hauran, within later Batanea) and the capital was probably
Damascus or the Phoenician city of Sidon. Persian freedom laws
allowed the cities of the Levant to continue to practice their
own religions, carry out their own commercial activities, and
establish colonies along the Mediterranean coast.
By
the time of their domination by the late Assyrian empire and then
the neo-Babylonians, the Phoenicians had lost a good deal of their
political and economic strength. Their trade, however, was still
very strong, and they continued to be prolific ship-builders and
sailors, losing nothing of their proclivity for independent thought
or strength of will. Although they provided a fleet which was
vital to Cambyses in the conquest of Mudrāya (Egypt), the
Phoenicians refused to help him in his proposed attack on Carthage,
their ancient colony, and the idea was abandoned. However, they
sided with the Persians against the Greeks in the wars (490-449
BC), which were, from a Syrian point of view, a precious occasion
for getting rid of the Greek presence in the Mediterranean. There's
nothing like a good war for weeding out direct competition!
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Alexander
the Great, Krzysztof Nawotka (Cambridge Scholars Publishing,
2009), from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The
Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and
the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of
the Ancient World (Captivating History, December 2019),
from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from A
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William
Smith (Ed), and from External Links: Encyclopędia Britannica,
and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and The Government of Syria under
Alexander the Great, A B Bosworth (The Classical Quarterly
Vol 24, No 1, May, 1974, pp 46-64, Cambridge University Press
on behalf of The Classical Association (available at JSTOR)),
and Geography, Strabo (Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1928).)
539
BC :
Despite the fall of Babirush itself to the Persians, it is entirely
possible that pockets of resistance remain - or at least areas
in which Persian overlordship is tacitly acknowledged while local
rule is maintained on a semi-independent basis, at least for a
time. The Chaldeans who had provided Babylon's last dynasty of
kings may be one such case. Although specific details are not
recorded, the Book of Daniel seems to retain a memory of this
in Belshar-uzur.
All
of Phoenicia is submerged within the Persian empire at the same
time. Many Phoenicians emigrate to the colonies, especially Carthage,
which quickly rises to become a major power. The many other colonies
in the western Mediterranean also become more important. On Sardinia,
for instance, Phoenicians mount a defence against a native Sardi
uprising that secures them control of much of the island.
![Achaemenid palace decoration at Babylon](Persia_BabylonPalace01_full.jpg)
This
Achaemenid (Persian empire) palace decoration stood in the city
of Babylon and was transported to Berlin upon being rediscovered
by archaeologists in the twentieth century
539 - 537? BC :
?
: Babylonian
satrap of Mesopotamia, Ebir-nāri, & Phoenicia.
539
BC :
One Belshar-uzur in Babirush may legitimately claim to be the
true successor to the Babylonian throne even though he holds no
power and doesn't have the resources to enforce his claim. He
is apparently killed by Cyrus the Great even though his father
is allowed to live, so he cannot be the otherwise unknown Babylonian
satrap for the first couple of years of Persian rule before being
replaced by Gaubaruva. Instead, as Cyrus allows existing offices
to be retained at first, this post is probably still filled by
its Neo-Babylonian incumbent.
537?
- 522 BC :
Gaubaruva
/ Gobryas / Gobares : Persian
satrap of Babirush (Mesopotamia), Ebir-nāri, & Phoenicia.
537
BC :
Gaubaruva is appointed as the first Persian satrap of Babirush.
He is known by a whole host of interpretations of his name, from
the Old Persian Gaubaruva or the Akkadian Gubaru, to the Greek
Gobryas, and the Latin Gobar(es). He can also be equated with
the Cyaxares of the Cyropaedia, but should not be confused
with the General Ugbaru (Old Persian) or Gobryas (Greek) who aids
Cyrus the Great in the conquest of Mesopotamia (a mistake made
in the Grayson version of the Nabonidus Chronicle). Ugbaru
may in fact govern the district or province of Gutium for a short
time before dying, having already reached an advanced age.
![Cyrus the Great](Persia_CyrusGreat_01_full.jpg)
Cyrus
the Great freed the Indo-Iranian Parsua people from Median domination
to establish a nation that is recognisable to this day, and an
empire that provided the basis for the vast territories that were
later ruled by Alexander the Great
524? - 516 BC :
Utani
/ Ushtanni : Satrap
of Babirush (Mesopotamia), Ebir-nāri, & Phoenicia.
c.484
- 482 BC :
Although any records to prove it have not survived, it would seem
to be in this period, between about 490-482 BC, in which Ebir-nāri
is created a satrapy in its own right, removing it (and therefore
Phoenicia) from the administration of Babirush (Babylonia). The
cause may well be the revolt in Babylonia which arises shortly
after a greater revolt in Mudrāya. In fact tablets from Babylonia
seem to show evidence of two risings by claimants to the Babylonian
throne. The first is a minor affair, but the second, in 482 BC,
seems more serious.
480
BC :
Invading
Greece in 480 BC, the Persians subdue the Macedonians and the
Thracian tribes (except for the Satrai, precursors to the Bessoi).
Then the vast army of Xerxes makes its way southwards and is swiftly
engaged by Athens and Sparta in the Vale of Tempe. The Persian
army is held up long enough for the Athenians to prepare their
navy for a seaborne engagement with the Persian fleet.
Athens, as the leader of the coalition of city states known as
the Delian League, fights the Persian navy at the battles of Artemisium
and Salamis, the latter being a resounding Greek victory. Tetramnestus,
son of Anysos of Sidon, is present - along with Anysos himself,
and other leading Phoenicians such as Mattan of Tyre - but the
battle leaves much of the Persian navy destroyed and Xerxes is
forced to retreat to Asia, leaving his army in Greece under Mardonius.
fl
407 & 402 BC :
Bēlsunu
/ Bel-shunu / Belesys : Satrap
of Athura, Ebir-nāri, & Phoenicia.
fl 401 & 387 BC :
Abrocomas
: Satrap
of Ebir-nāri & Phoenicia.
401
BC :
Cyrus, satrap of Asia Minor, attempts to revolt, mobilising an
army and ten thousand Greek mercenaries to attack his brother.
Defeat leads to his death in October 401 BC at the Battle of Cunaxa.
Abrocomas, having been assembling forces for a re-invasion of
a now-independent Egypt, marches to the assistance of Artaxerxes
II. He arrives following the battle's conclusion but the extra
manpower is no doubt ideal in handling mopping-up operations.
![Battle of Cunaxa](Persia_BattleCunaxa01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Cunaxa saw the end of just one in a number of internal
Persian revolts that often involved thousands of troops on either
side, although in this case the presence of a large body of Greek
mercenaries should have been an indicator of the future threat
the Greeks would become
389
- 387 BC :
Abrocomas joins two Persian army commanders - Pharnabazus (not
to be confused with Pharnabazus II of Phrygia) and Tithraustes
(former satrap of Sparda) - in the attempted reconquest of Egypt.
Their efforts meet with little success as the Egyptians have relearned
how to defend their country.
fl
351/350 BC :
Bēlsunu
/ Bel-shunu / Belesys : Satrap
of Ebir-nāri & Phoenicia.
346
BC :
In tandem with Satrap Mazaeus of Khilakku, Bēlsunu of Ebir-nāri
and Phoenicia leads fresh contingents of Greek mercenaries to
put down the revolt in the Levant (principally led by Sidon).
The main attack falls on Sidon but both satraps are repulsed.
The Persian king himself is forced to follow up with a more direct
intervention.
mid-300s
BC :
Dernes : Satrap
of Phoenicia & Arabāya.
? - 333 BC :
Arsames : Satrap
of Athura, Ebir-nāri, Khilakku & Phoenicia. Killed.
333
- 332 BC :
In 334 BC Alexander of Macedon launches his campaign into the
Persian empire by crossing the Dardanelles. Much of Anatolia falls
by 333 BC and Arsames falls (whilst also officially satrap of
Arabāya). Alexander proceeds into Syria during 333-332 BC
to receive the submission of Ebir-nāri, which also gains
him Harran, Judah, and Phoenicia (principally Byblos and Sidon,
with Tyre holding out until it can be taken by force). Athura,
Gaza, and Egypt also capitulate (not without a struggle in Gaza's
case). Mazaeus of Athura initially plays his part by opposing
Alexander, but he eventually surrenders, and Alexander makes him
satrap of Mesopotamia.
Argead
Dynasty in Phoenicia :
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until
Alexander's death in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period
which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's successors held no real power,
being mere figureheads for the generals who really held control
of Alexander's empire. Following that latter period and during
the course of several wars, Phoenicia was left in the hands of
the Seleucid empire from 301 BC.
Later Persian Ebir-nāri (Syria) seems to have been established
as a satrapy in its own right away from oversight by Babirush
(Babylonia). Once Syria was stripped away from Athura, thereby
lessening Babylonia's own importance, the post of Babylonian satrap
was poorly attested. The Persian province of Ebir-nāri extended
from the Amanus to Sinai and included Salamis on Cyprus. The administrative
divisions of the Syrian province were likely the same as during
Neo-Babylonian rule (Damas, Hamath, and Hauran, within later Batanea)
and the capital was probably Damascus or Sidon.
Persian freedom laws allowed the cities of the Levant to continue
to practice their own religions, carry out their own commercial
activities, and establish colonies along the Mediterranean coast.
Much the same was true during Greek domination of the region for
the next three hundred years. All the Phoenician cities surrendered
to Alexander the Great in 332 BC - except for Tyre, which had
to be besieged but which was eventually captured.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Alexander the Great, Krzysztof Nawotka, from The Persian
Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus
(Penguin, 1996), from The Cambridge Ancient History, John
Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds), from
Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian of Nicomedia, and from External
Links: Encyclopędia Britannica, and Encyclopaedia Iranica,
and The Government of Syria under Alexander the Great,
A B Bosworth (The Classical Quarterly Vol 24, No 1, May,
1974, pp 46-64, Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical
Association (available at JSTOR)).)
332
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : King
of Macedonia. Conquered Persia.
323
- 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded
half-brother of Alexander the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander IV of Macedonia : Infant
son of Alexander the Great and Roxana.
331
BC :
With a Samaritan insurgency dealt with, Syria seems to be securely
under Macedonian Greek control. From around this point onwards
it seems to revert to a single satrapal territory with only one
incumbent. The post is given to Menes at the end of 331 BC who
also commands a rather vast swathe of neighbouring territory.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map,
with them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across
the vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
331
- 323? BC :
Menes
: Greek
satrap of Athura, Cilicia, Phoenicia, & Syria.
329
BC :
The appointment of Menes (probably the son of Dionysius who had
been raised to the circle of Alexander's 'Bodyguards' in 333 BC
- a major distinction which would mark him out as a commanding
figure) in such a satrapal role over so much territory has been
called into question by scholars. He has even been labelled as
nothing more than a communications officer despite scholars linking
him the the 'Bodyguards' role.
329
- 328? BC :
?
: Unnamed
deputy or stand-in?
Either way, Menes is not in direct command of Syria in 329 BC,
but around 332 BC the satrap of Cilicia, Balacrus, is killed in
battle and Menes may be required there as well as in Syria as
a matter of urgent expediency, while Alexander's crossing of the
Euphrates is imminent. The fact that Menes is also in Zariaspa
in Bactria in 329 BC with his own levy of troops makes it clear
that his appointment is largely to retain peaceful control without
launching any unnecessary offensives against remaining pockets
of Persian resistance while raising as many recruits as possible
for Alexander's drive eastwards. However, records regarding Syria
(and therefore Phoenicia) now fall silent until the death of Alexander,
so Menes may well retain his position until then once he has returned
from Bactria.
323
- 319 BC :
Laomedon
of Mitylene : Greek
satrap of Syria and Phoenicia.
323
- 320 BC :
Immediately following Alexander's untimely death, Syria and Phoenicia
are assigned to Laomedon. He is confirmed in his position during
the second partition of Alexander's empire in 321 BC in the middle
of the First War of the Diadochi, while Cilicia has been
separated as a satrapy in its own right. But Ptolemy of Egypt
soon begins taking an interest, offering him a large bribe to
hand over his satrapy. When Laomedon declines his offer, Ptolemy
sends an army under the command of Nicanor to take it by force
by 318 BC.
![Ptolemy I coin](Hellenic_PtolemyI_Coin01_full.jpg)
Shown
here is an Hellenic-era Egyptian coin which displays the head
of Ptolemy I, Greek founder of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty following
the death of Alexander the Great
Laomedon
has little with which to resist so he is taken prisoner, escapes,
and seemingly joins the general opposition to the Antigonids.
His final fate is unknown while Antigonus governs Syria (and Phoenicia)
during the period of the remaining Wars of the Diadochi.
318
- 313 BC :
Ptolemy
: Greek
ruler of Egypt. Evacuated.
319
- 301 BC :
The domination of Syria and Phoenicia by Ptolemy of Egypt briefly
comes to an end in 313 BC when he joins the widespread opposition
to the Antigonids. In 312 BC Seleucus Nicator defeats Demetrius,
son of Antigonus, at the Battle of Gaza which briefly allows Ptolemy
to reoccupy Coele Syria. Following a reversal in battle fortunes
he pulls out again as Antigonus invades Syria in strength to occupy
it.
312
BC :
Ptolemy
: Greek
ruler of Egypt. Briefly retook the region.
312
- 301 BC :
Antigonus
Monophthalmus (One Eye) : Antigonid
ruler. Commanded through conquest.
301
- 63 BC :
Much of Syria and Phoenicia are gained by the Hellenic Seleucid
empire following the decisive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, although
Seleucus allows Ptolemy to retain Coele Syria. Seleucus had already
declared himself king of Syria and Babylonia in 305 BC, immediately
founding the city of Seleucia in Mesopotamia by massively rebuilding
and expanding an existing settlement. Now he also founds the city
of Antioch on the Orontes (Syrian Antioch). Over the years, the
Seleucids go to war against Ptolemaic Egypt over the rest of Syria,
with full possession finally being gained at the end of the Fifth
Syrian War in 195 BC.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive
Wars of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would
be divided
In
time, though, crushed out of existence by the Romans on one side
and the Parthians on the other, the Seleucid empire is terminated
by 63 BC. Antiochus XIII, the last Seleucid ruler of any kind,
is dethroned by Pompey when he turns Syria into a Roman province.
Antioch on the Orontes (Syrian Antioch) continues to be an important
city throughout the subsequent Roman period, and serves as a major
centre of early Christianity.
63
BC - AD 1918 :
With the final fall of the Seleucids in 63 BC, Phoenicia is taken
by Rome. It remains within the republic, its subsequent empire,
and later the Eastern Roman empire even while Europe is falling
to barbarian kingdoms. In AD 551, much of Phoenicia is destroyed
by a great earthquake. The cities decline in importance and archaeological
evidence from this period is fragmentary.
In
637 the Islamic empire sweeps through the region, conquering everything
in its path. A degree of decline and fragmentation sets in following
the invasion of the Near East in the tenth and eleventh centuries
by Seljuq Turks, making Phoenicia ripe for conquest by the Crusaders.
In
1291 the region falls under the Mameluke sultans who, in turn,
are conquered by the Ottoman empire in 1517. From 1697, while
still nominally part of the Ottoman empire, the Shihabi amirs
of Lebanon are semi-independent, although direct rule is re-established
in 1842. In 1918 the French mandate of Lebanon is established.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/CanaanCityStates.htm