DAMAS
(DAMASCUS / UPE?)
Damascus is one of the oldest continuously-inhabited cities in the
world, with the earliest layers of occupation dating to between
6000-5000 BC. This was at a time in which the region's earliest
nomadic pastoralists were extending southwards towards the Red Sea,
at the end of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture of the Fertile
Crescent. Those earliest layers of occupation may not have been
permanent at first, but they soon became so. The city's pre-Iron
Age history is very obscure, but it may correspond to Egypt's province
of 'Upe' in the northern Levant. This was was centred on 'Ta-ms-qu',
on the border between Egyptian and Hittite zones of control. That
obscurity may be the reason for some sources claiming a third millennium
BC date for the city's founding, even though the archaeology for
habitation is almost twice as old. However, it remains unclear when
the initial settlement area graduated into something that could
be referred to as a city.
The
ancient city of Damascus was founded on the south bank of the River
Barada, behind the mountains of Lebanon, with the city being surrounded
by an oasis. Despite this beneficial location, Damascus appears
not to have achieved any importance until it was occupied by the
Semitic Aramaeans in the tenth century BC. Under Aramaean leadership
it enjoyed a period of independence as a regionally-powerful city
state, often tied closely to Israelite politics (and therefore being
mentioned many times in the Old Testament). Following a good deal
of contact with the Assyrians, and therefore mentions in Assyrian
records, Damascus later proved to be an important city for many
of the region's great empires, and the old city's Roman-era walls
are still highly visible despite a much greater modern city having
grown up around it. The fact that they were re-fortified by successive
masters - including the Ayyubids and Mamelukes - helped of course.
The
name Damascus (or Damas in many older texts) is suspected to be
pre-Semitic. The Amorites of the eighteenth century BC certainly
knew it as Dimaski (according to the Ebla archives), and the Semitic
Akkadians of the fourteenth century BC had adapted that as Dimashqa
(as shown in the Armana letters). Dimashqa subsequently became Damas,
Dimash, and Damascus. A good source of wealth for the city in the
latter half of the second millennium BC and during the first millennium
BC was the fact that it lay along the 'King's Highway'. This was
an important north-south trade route between Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia
which also benefited other kingdoms along the route, including Edom
and Moab.
![The ruins of Palmyra in Syria](Ancient_Palmyra02_long.jpg)
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Unger's Bible
Dictionary, Merrill F Unger (1957), from Easton's Bible Dictionary,
Matthew George Easton (1897), from the Illustrated Dictionary
& Concordance of the Bible, Geoffrey Wigoder, from Damascus:
A History, Ross Burns (Routledge, 2005), and from Arameans,
Wayne T Pitard (2000).)
c.2500
BC :
Uz
ben Shem : (Grand)son
of Shem. Existence unproven and dating improbable.
Uz is claimed as the first-born son of Aram, who himself is the
son of Shem in the genealogy of nations descended from Noah, ancestor
of the Israelites. The Sumerian myth of Ziusudra exists in a single
copy, the fragmentary Eridu Genesis, which is datable by its script
to the seventeenth century BC (it may be this version which was
adapted in Babylon from earlier sources, and was then rewritten
for the Old Testament, compiled in the sixth century BC). It is
the Old Testament version which confirms Noah as a revised Ziusudra,
with the flood event itself being tentatively dated to 2900-2750
BC. Aram is a founder figure for Damas itself, as witnessed by the
use of the name Aram Damascus in first millennium BC records.
![Sumerian flood tablet](Sumer_Flood01_full.jpg)
The
Sumerian flood story includes a depiction of a large vessel which
is packed with various objects and, presumably, animals, clearly
showing a basis for the later Old Testament flood story of Noah
and the ark
1453 BC :
Egypt reasserts its authority in the region by conquering territory
in the Levant and Syria as far north as Amurru. The Egyptians establish
three provinces, one of which may correspond to Damas. This is Upe,
in the northern Levant, which has its administrative centre at Ta-ms-qu.
c.1370
BC :
The Hittites extend their influence and control in Syria as far
south as Damas, although in this period the city is controlled by
nearby Amurru, and still administered overall by Egypt.
fl
c.1350 BC :
Biriyawaza
: Canaanite
vassal of Amurru. Named in Egypt's Armana letters.
c.1340 BC :
Sensing the weakness of the neighbouring Mitanni empire (as well
as of Egypt), Aziru of Amurru makes a secret deal with the Hittite
king, Suppiluliuma. He also establishes himself as a strong king
in the region, taking control in Damas and even going so far as
to conquer the city of Sumur (later mentioned within the context
of Biblical Canaanite city states), where the Egyptian representative
has his residence. The restoration of the city is demanded, but
Aziru forces Egypt to recognise him first. However, relations with
Egypt are soured by constant complaints from Gebal.
c.1335
BC :
Aziru
/ Azirou : King
of Amurru.
c.1300 BC :
Egypt still conducts profitable trade with Damas, as witnessed by
the building of a series of border fortresses as the former seeks
to control the Sinai. The fortresses help to defend Egypt's trade
route to Damas, which also passes through Edom and Moab at this
time.
![Tell Habua](Sinai_Tell-Habua01_full.jpg)
The
archaeological discovery of the Egyptian fort of Tell Habua (ancient
Tharu, built around 1000 BC) near the Suez Canal underlined Egypt's
policy of maintaining border fortresses on its eastern flank
c.1100 BC :
With the destruction of the city's former master, Amurru, a century
before, Aramaeans are free to move in and take control of Damas.
This is despite resistance by the Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser
I, who campaigns aggressively against them in an attempt to prevent
them settling in northern Mesopotamia and southern Syria.
c.1200
- 980 BC :
Political chaos engulfs Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant coast around
1200 BC, and a dark age overtakes the region. With Assyria also
weakening, there is nothing to stop Aramaean tribes from migrating
southwards and eastwards. Over the course of the twelfth to ninth
centuries they mount attacks which destroy cities such as Qatna
and Qattara and take control in many established cities, including
Aram Damascus.
![Damascus wall](Arabic_Damascus02_full.jpg)
This
colour photochrome print shows a wall in Damascus' defences which
is rumoured to be the one over which St Paul escaped in the first
century AD
By
about 980 BC the situation has largely settled down into the typical
regional squabbling, and this is when Ammon is conquered by Israel,
despite assistance being supplied by Damas. The Aramaean rulers
of Damas are unknown for this entire period, unrecorded until the
dark age has relented.
fl c.980s? BC :
?
: Unknown ruler. An ally of Ammon.
c.970?
BC :
The Old Testament recounts that 'when David destroyed Zobah's army,
Rezon gathered a band of men around him and became their leader;
they went to Damas, where they settled and took control'. This Rezon
is a young officer of Zobah, the son of Eliada, who escapes the
city's fall and establishes himself in Damas, where he 'founds'
Aram Damascus - in other words he takes control of it with his band
of men - and severely threatens Israel and its northern successor,
Samaria. The changes mean that Damas also replaces the eclipsed
Zobah as the main centre of Aramaean power in the Levant.
The rule of a Hezion/Hadyon (Hebrew/Aramaic versions) and his descendents
has been confirmed by discoveries of stelae in Syria. It is presumed
that the Old Testament's Rezon is the same kingdom-creating figure,
although this form of the name is a corruption of the original.
fl
c.950 - 930s? BC :
Hezion / Hadyon / Rezon I : Son
of Eliada of Zobah. The Old Testament's Rezon.
fl c.920s? BC :
Tab-Rimmon
/ Tabrimmon : Son.
928 - 925 BC :
The break-up of Israel allows Damas to rapidly grow in power and
at times even threaten the existence of its southern neighbour.
It is frequently called upon by Judah to help against Samaria and
probably gains some of the latter's northern towns during this period.
Also not specifically mentioned in the Old Testament, McCleese (see
sources) believes that a treaty exists between Tab-Rimmon and Judah
(based on 1 Kings 15:19). Damas also gains the important caravan
routes westwards to the Phoenician ports, bringing immense wealth
into the city.
![Samaria excavations](Israel_Samaria01_full.jpg)
This
general view of the 1933 excavations of the city of Samaria shows
them while looking towards the north
c.914 - 880 BC :
Ben-Hadad
I / Benhadad I / Birhadad : Son.
c.880 - 842 BC :
Ben-Hadad
II / Benhadad II / Adad-Idri : Ben-Hadad
I & II may be one and the same. Assassinated.
c.860s? BC :
Asa of Judah and Ba'asa (Baasha), ruler of Ammon, maintain a near-lifelong
feud. When Ba'asa pushes Samaria's frontier to within five miles
of Jerusalem, Asa, just like his father before him when under pressure,
calls on Damas for help. In this case it is Ben-Hadad who responds
to Asa's offer of payment if Damas will break its treaty with Ammon.
855
- 854 BC :
Damas makes its long-awaited attack on Samaria, destroying Hazor
along the way. But Ben-Hadad and thirty-two vassal kings are strategically
defeated by Ahab of Samaria twice in two years (although this attack
may be a misattribution by later editors of the Old Testament and
may instead refer to the throwing off of Damascene domination by
Jehoash in the early eighth century BC).
853 BC :
Ben-Hadad
is a member of an alliance of states which also include Ammon, Arvad,
Byblos, Edom, Egypt, Hamath, Kedar, and Samaria (seemingly despite
the recent conflict between Damas and Samaria). Together they fight
Shalmaneser III of Assyria at the Battle of Qarqar which consists
of the largest known number of combatants in a single battle to
date, and is the first historical mention of the Arabs from the
southern deserts. Despite claims to the contrary, the Assyrians
are defeated, since they do not press on to their nearest target,
Hamath, and do not resume their attacks on Hamath and Damas for
about six years.
![Map of Canaan and Syria c.850 BC](Map850BC_full.jpg)
When
the Neo-Assyrian empire threatened the various city states of southern
Syria and Canaan around 853 BC, they united to protect their joint
territory - successfully it seems, at least for a time
850
- 848 BC :
The alliance of states of 853 BC breaks up when Ahab of Samaria,
assisted by Jehoshaphat of Judah, wages war against Aram Damascus
at Ramoth Gilead, where Ahab meets his death in 848 BC. Damas subsequently
removes Bashan from Samarian control. Ahab's third successor (in
842 BC) is Jehu. Almost immediately after his accession, Hazael
usurps the throne of Aram Damascus, murdering the incumbent king
in the process.
842
- 798 BC :
Hazael / Haza'el : Usurper.
Probably a court official. Murdered Ben-Hadad.
842
BC :
Ahaziah of Judah and Joram of Samaria engage Hazael in battle at
Ramoth-Gilead (seemingly a common location for battles in this period).
Joram is wounded and retreats to Jezreel where Ahaziah rejoins him.
Both are killed there by Jehu, who then seizes the throne of Samaria.
c.840
BC :
Under Hazael, Damas expands its borders by annexing all the Hebrew
possessions east of the Jordan, ravaging Judah, and rendering Samaria
impotent. From inscriptions by Shalmaneser III of Assyria it appears
that Hazael also withstands an attack by the Assyrian army and keeps
Damas, Syria, and Philistia independent (although he does seize
the Philistine city of Gath).
However, his actions against his neighbours unleashes a long series
of conflicts with Jerusalem. Gath is subsequently besieged and then
destroyed, towards the end of the century, and it never recovers.
Jerusalem, on the other hand, remains seemingly weak in the face
of Hazael's regional dominance. During his reign, Joash of Judah
has to pay him off at least once to get him to leave Jerusalem alone.
![Relief from Medinet Habu](Philistines_Relief01_full.jpg)
This
photo shows a relief from Medinet Habu which details Philistines
with their distinctive feathered headdresses, making them an unusual
sight on the battlefield
fl
c.796 BC :
Ben-Hadad III / Benhadad III / Hadadezer : Son.
Sometimes referred to as Ben-Hadad II & Mari.
c.796 BC :
Ben-Hadad III is not the man his father had been. Initially he occupies
the greater part of Samaria but introduces repressive controls which
are so strongly resented that the Samarians even welcome the return
of the Assyrians. (His alternative name of Hadadezer can also be
attributed to his father, which would make his own name more logical
- Ben-Hadad meaning 'son of Hadad'.)
Return they do around this time, attacking Damas and forcing tribute
from it. This attack is almost certainly led by Shamshi-ilu from
his western base at Kar-Shulmanu-Ashared. He is perhaps the most
powerful man of his time, one of a small group of almost equally
powerful magnates - princes who govern Assyria under the sovereignty
of Adad-Nirari III and his three immediate successors.
A Mari, king of Damascus is mentioned on the Saba'a stele, which
is located to the south of the Sinjar Mountains in Syria. The stele
is erected by an officer of Adad-Nirari's by the name of Nergalerish.
It confirms that Mari of Damascus is confined to that city in 796,
referring to it as 'his royal city', which means that it must be
referring to Ben-Hadad who submits to the Assyrians as their vassal.
Assyrian names of Syrian kings do not always match the known Syrian
versions, but this one is quite a departure. A possible alternative
is that Ben-Hadad has been removed and replaced (temporarily or
otherwise) by a rival or former subject by the name of Mari.
![Shamshi-Adad V stela](Assyria_ShamshiAddadV_01_full.jpg)
Shown
here is a stela which has been dated to the reign of Shamshi-Adad
V of Assyria one of Damascus' main enemies during this period who
was often, fortunately, distracted by the northern threat that was
Urartu
Gradually
losing his father's empire, Ben-Hadad also leads a coalition of
states against Zakir of Hamath, and Luash to the north of Damas,
but is defeated by the latter. Samaria under Jehoash is even able
to recover to the extent that it is able to throw off his domination,
and later makes Damas a vassal state. There is uncertainty now about
the kingship in Damas. Given the fairly certain reignal dates for
Rezon II, and the uncertainty about whether his father is actually
a king, there is space for one or possibly more unknown kings to
rule during this period.
c.780s - 760s? BC :
?
: Possibly
one or more unknown kings?
fl c.760s? BC :
Tab-El / Tabael / Tabeel : King?
Known only for being the father of Rezon II.
c.740 - 732 BC :
Rezon II / Rezin / Radyan : Son.
Last independent king. Killed by the Assyrians.
738 BC :
Both Damas and Samaria become vassals to Assyria, but their kings
remain on the throne. Rezon II is the son of Tabeel, a possible
(but unverified) king whose name means 'the goodness of God'. The
use of 'Tabael' is a deliberately derogatory alteration, denoting
'no good' or 'good for nothing'. It seems that the human ability
to play with words and names is fully alive in the Levant of the
first millennium BC. Outside of the Old Testament, Tab-El is mentioned
in an Assyrian letter of the seventh century BC. The identification
of Rezon, however, is more problematical. His homeland seems to
be Hadara rather than Damas, and 'the son of Tabeel' in texts may
not necessarily be the same person as Rezon (see Tucker for a detailed
exploration of this possibility).
734 - 733 BC :
Pekah of Samaria and Rezon II form an anti-Assyrian coalition. They
try to force Ahaz of Judah to join them but are stopped when Tiglath-Pileser
III marches an army into the region (partially thanks to payments
of silver and gold by Ahaz). Over the next two years he re-conquers
all the rebellious states, and Damas comes under attack.
![Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria](Assyria_TiglathPileserIII_01_full.jpg)
Tiglath-Pileser
III dominated the Levantine city states during the later years of
the eighth century BC, terminating the kingdom of Samaria and, shown
here, with his foot on the shoulder of Hanunu of the Philistine
city of Gezer, a gesture of dominance in the face of Hanunu's crouched
submission
732 - 609 BC :
The Assyrians capture and destroy Damas in retaliation for all the
city's attempts to challenge its supremacy in the Levant. The king
is killed and the city's inhabitants are deported, initially to
Moab's city of Kir-Hareshet. A governor is appointed to Damas, something
that happens to more than one Syrian city, as witnessed in Carchemish.
The city remains significant throughout the following centuries,
but its territory is carved up into five provinces: Mansuate (north-west),
Subite (far north), Damas, Karnaim (south of Damascus and east of
the River Jordan), and Hauran (south-east).
fl
700s BC :
Ilu-Ittia
: Assyrian
governor.
612 - 572 BC :
Damas' immediate fate after the fall of Assyria is not clear. Some
sources state that Babylonia inherits it immediately, but the fact
that it definitely falls in 572 BC suggests a period of renewed
independence or a much looser alliance with the inheritors of the
Assyrian empire. It is also possible - although entirely unrecorded
- that it and other Syrian cities manage to rebel against initial
attempts to control it, necessitating the conquest of 572 BC.
572 - 332 BC :
Damas falls to Babylonia in 572 BC, and after the fall of that empire
it becomes part of the Persian empire. Damas is made the capital
of the province of Ebir-nāri until it falls to the Greeks of
Macedon in 332 BC.
332
BC - AD 1127 :
Damas follows the Syrian sequence of events, becoming important
in the history of the Seleucid empire. It briefly becomes part of
the Nabataean kingdom in the first century AD. In the seventh century
it is conquered by the Islamic empire and later in the same century,
the Umayyads move the capital of the empire to Damas, making Islamic
Syria the centre of power.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/SyriaDamascus.htm
#Aram%20Damascus