ISRAELITE
TRIBE
According
to tradition, the Israelites were Semitic émigrés from southern
Mesopotamia who left the city of Ur during the reign of Hammurabi
of Babylonian, when his empire was at its height. A confederation
of tribes, they initially settled on the coast of the Dead Sea,
before being forced to emigrated to Egypt, only to return centuries
later to form small kingdoms in Canaan during the period of deep
social unrest around and after 1200 BC.
Oral history almost always has a core truth at its heart (something
that can be forgotten by scholars who wander off at tangents with
imaginative theories about tribal origins). The assertion that the
Israelites came from Mesopotamia has to be taken at face value.
However, it doesn't necessarily have to refer to a wave of thirteen
tribes and several hundred or more tribespeople wandering into Canaan.
Archaeology alone has disproved this version of events. Instead,
as with tribal associations everywhere in history, the arrivals
probably formed a small but powerful - and possibly more technologically
advanced - group that quickly became a ruling nobility over Canaanite
tribes. As with other such cases, such as various tribes of the
Celts and Germanics, or the Mitanni when they arrived to dominate
the Hurrians, the new arrivals were in command, but their own customs
were quickly replaced by those of their majority subjects, making
them also look Canaanite in origin. The simplest answer is usually
the best one.
In their early years the Israelites were probably more usually known
as habiru (which may or may not be a source for the name 'Hebrew')
when they migrated into Canaan from Mesopotamia, and also when they
supposedly invaded Canaan in the twelfth century BC through Edom
and Moab, penetrating as far north as Amurru in Syria. This term
seems first to have been used for a range of outsiders, from unemployed
farm labourers and vagrants to mounted mercenary archers. The context
differed depending upon where the references were found. Although
it may originally have referred to just about any marginal people
who lived outside state controls, there is nothing to preclude one
such group becoming the later Hebrews.
While the Bible's Old Testament is the primary source for much of
the information on the second and first millennium BC Israelites,
the Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus, also provides a highly interesting
interpretation in Greek for his predominantly Roman audience in
his massive work, Jewish Antiquities. The early parts of
this list are largely made up of a combination of incidents from
both sources. The dating agrees with sources such as Oxford, but
others date Abraham to about 2000 BC, Joseph at about 1800 BC, Moses
at about 1400 BC, and David and Solomon at 1000/900 BC. There are
various chronologies which differ to some degree (the orthodox dating,
or Thiele, Usher, or Rohl (an exceptionally unorthodox dating which
has been greeted with near-universal disdain), Velikovsky, and Courville
included). The book of Genesis provides Terah's ancestry back to
Noah, many of whose members are fanciful attempts to link to ancient
kingdoms and states, but the ages of the earliest figures mentioned
must be taken with a pinch of salt. The names of direct descendants,
though, may well be correct, part of an oral tradition which, in
any culture, has always placed a strong emphasis on ensuring an
unbroken list of ancestors. These names are shown below with a lilac
background to highlight their near-mythical status. Spellings are
various, taken from Hebrew and Greek sources mainly.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Sean
Bambrough (on Israelite dating, the figure of Joseph, and the Amarna
letters) and Wayne McCleese (the list of Abraham's ancestors), from
The Amarna Letters, William L Moran (1992), from the Illustrated
Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible, Geoffrey Wigoder
(Gen Ed, 1986), from A Test of Time, David Rohl (Arrow, 2001),
from A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi,
and the Midrashic Literature, Marcus Jastrow (G P Putnam's Sons,
1903), from the Book of Jubilees (otherwise known as the
Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), by unknown ancient Jewish
religious authors), from Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities,
Flavius Josephus, and from the NOVA/PBS documentary series, The
Bible's Buried Secrets, first broadcast 18 November 2008.)
fl
c.2090s? BC :
Noah
: Son.
Aged 100 when Arphaxad born.
c.2090?
BC :
The
Old Testament provides a list of descendants from Noah to Abraham,
along with the ages of each descendant at the time his own son is
born. While many of those ages seem plausible, the earliest do not.
A rough calculation of about twenty to thirty years for each generation
supplies an approximate date of 2090 BC for Noah. His Israelite
descendants supposedly emigrate from Ur around 1750 BC, but while
there is no confirmation either way that they have previously been
long term residents of Ur or its immediate environs, much of their
story probably comes from this region (including the Biblical flood,
which can be equated with the Sumerian Flood story).
![Sumerian flood tablet](Sumer_Flood01_full.jpg)
The
Sumerian flood story includes a depiction of a large vessel which
is packed with various objects and, presumably, animals, clearly
showing a basis for the later Old Testament flood story of Noah
and the ark
fl
c.2060s? BC :
Shem
: Son.
Aged 100 when Arphaxad born.
The
sons of Shem are said to be Arphaxad, Elam, Asshur, Lud, and Aram.
While the first name is of uncertain origin (and therefore possibly
genuine), the others are clearly attempts to create founder figures
for several important ancient kingdoms. Elam relates to the region
of that name, and an important and powerful kingdom at this time.
Asshur (Ashur) is the name of a northern Mesopotamian city state
- one of three - which together are better known as Assyria. Lud
is connected with Lydia (the Luddu of Assyrian records) and their
Luwian predecessors (although the Assyrian Lubdu in areas of western
Media may be a better connection). Aram is the father of Uz ben
Shem, a founder figure for Damascus.
fl
c.2030s? BC :
Arphaxad
/ Arpachshad : Son. Aged 35 when Salah born.
fl
c.2010s? BC :
Salah
/ Shelah / Sala : Son (or son of Cainan, son of Arphaxad).
Aged 30 for Eber.
fl
c.1880s? BC :
Eber
/ Heber : Son. Aged 34 when Peleg born. Inhabitant of Babylon?
The
name Eber appears to relate to 'crossing over and the beyond'. This
has been deciphered as an origin for the name 'Hebrew' and a meaning
suggesting the crossing of the Euphrates and the land beyond it,
clearly a reference to the later Israelite migration westwards.
Eber is an ancestor figure of the Israelites and the Ishmaelites
(Ishmael being a son of Abraham), as well as of the original Arabs
in Islamic tradition.
The Book of Jubilees mentions the Biblical Nimrod, king of
Babylon, name in its Greek form, Nebrod, as being the father of
Azurad, the wife of Eber and mother of Peleg. This account would
therefore make him an ancestor of the Israelites themselves. As
the leaders of the latter can be dated approximately, so too can
Nimrod, although it places him at the very start of Babylon's rise
as a major city state. Eber is claimed to be present during the
building of Nimrod's 'Tower of Babel', while Peleg witnesses the
division of humanity into speakers of different languages.
fl
c.1860s? BC :
Peleg
/ Phaleg : Son. Aged 30 (or 130) when Reu born.
fl
c.1830s? BC :
Reu
/ Ragau : Son. Aged 32 when Serug born.
fl
c.1800? BC :
Serug
/ Saruch : Son. Aged 30 (or 130) when Nahor born. An inhabitant
of Ur.
fl
c.1770s? BC :
Nahor
/ Nachor / Naghor : Son. Aged 29 when Terah born. An inhabitant
of Ur.
c.1752
- 1750 BC :
Terah
: Son. Aged 70 when Abraham born. Began the exodus from
Ur.
c.1750
BC :
Terah
leads his people to settle in Harran, a city far up and to the east
of the Euphrates, near the Hatti, where he dies. His son, Abraham,
inherits the leadership, and begins to formulate his theories of
a single God of which he determines to persuade all others, unless
they can come up with a better theory that persuades him otherwise.
Abraham also adopts his brother's son, Lot, as his own (presumably
as his potential successor in light of his own failure to produce
a son). They head south to Canaan where Abraham occupies the region
around the later Jebusite city of Hebron, and Lot the plain near
the River Jordan and the city of Sodom.
![Israelites](Israel_Migration01_full.jpg)
This
slightly fanciful view of the migrating Israelites does show a surprisingly
small number of participants (more are cropped off from the left,
but even so their numbers are very finite), something that chimes
with the 'ruling elite' theory of migration detailed in the introduction,
above
The
Old Testament also reports on the 'five cities of the plain' in
Canaan, which include Salem, as well as their overlords who come
into conflict with the Israelites. Lot comes to the assistance of
his neighbours, the people of Sodom. Later in his life, Abraham
is credited with introducing circumcision to the Israelites, at
a time when they are clearly still tent dwellers.
c.1750
- 1700 BC :
Abraham
/ Avram / Abram : Son. Led the tribe to Canaan, close to
Palestine.
c.1750
BC :
Lot
: Nephew, and son of Harran.
c.1740
BC :
Moab,
first son of Lot (after the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah) and
grandnephew of Abraham, gains the stretch of land between the River
Arnon and the Brook of Zered on the coast of the Dead Sea. This
area forms the kingdom of Moab. Ben Ammi, an illegitimate son of
Lot, gains Ammon, east of the River Jordan and on Moab's northern
border.
c.1740
BC :
Moab
: Son of Lot. King of Moab.
c.1740
BC :
Ben
Ammi : Son of Lot. King of Ammon.
c.1700
BC :
Aram
ben Nahor : Brother of Abraham. Ancestor figure of all
Aramaeans.
c.1700
BC :
Ismael
/ Ishmael : Son of Abraham. Ancestor figure of Kedarites
& Nabataeans.
c.1700
BC :
Isaac
: Son of Abraham.
c.1700
BC :
A
late son of Abraham, Isaac is his successor as leader of the early
Israelites. He lives much of his life in Hebron and eventually dies
there, but with at least one interruption in the meantime - during
a period of famine he (and by inference his tribe) is forced to
seek refuge with the Canaanite ruler of later Philistine territory,
Abimelech of Gerar (son of the Abimelech who had previously had
dealings with Abraham). Abimelech later visits Isaac when he is
encamped at Beer-sheba, and expresses a desire to renew the covenant
which had been entered into between their fathers.
Isaac's
eldest son is Esau, and he eventually gains his birthright (despite
his brother's attempts to steal it from him). This is the land that
is centred around Mount Seir, from the Brook of Zered to the Sinai
peninsula, which becomes the kingdom of Edom.
c.1700
BC :
Esau
: Son. King of Edom.
c.1650
BC :
Jacob
: Brother.
c.1650
BC :
Jacob
spends some years in Harran, where he meets his wives. As he returns
them and his large family to Hebron, Jacob stops off at the Canaanite
city of Shechem where his daughter is attacked, so Jacob's sons
slay all the males within the city walls. Upon his return home,
Jacob succeeds Isaac as the leader of his people, with his twelve
sons forming the basis of the later tribes of Israel.
The
Israelites are presumed to descend into Egypt to escape famine just
as Lower Egypt is invaded and governed by the Hyksos, probably making
their entrance and acceptance there easier. They settle in the region
of modern Cairo, at first as welcomed guests but later enduring
worsening conditions and eventually slavery. According to the available
sources, Joseph is the focus of Hebrew leadership when they first
arrive there, but their deteriorating conditions mean that the situation
four hundred years later is very different, with no apparent ruling
house, although a Hebrew nobility survives.
More
recent theories have diverted away from the idea that it is Hyksos
Egypt that the Israelites enter. Some scholars place the early Israelites
even earlier, by as much as four centuries, with them interacting
with Twelfth Dynasty Egypt. Another school of thought prefers a
much earlier period, Third Dynasty Egypt under Zoser, based on the
idea that early Egyptian dating is still incorrect, with Menes being
placed up to seven hundred years too early.
c.1625
BC :
Joseph
: Son. Leader of the Israelites in Hyksos Egypt.
Ephraim
& Manasses : Sons, but no claims of leadership made
for them in sources.
Levi
: Elder brother of Joseph.
Caath
: Son.
Amram
: Son.
c.1371
- 1358 BC :
The
Amarna letters between Egypt and Assyria, and the city states of
Syria and Canaan, describe the disruptive activities of the habiru,
painting them as a threat to the stability of the region.
Rohl's
discredited theory is that the habiru of the Amarna letters
are the later Israelites of David. Findings may indicate that the
three years of drought, famine, and plague of the Amarna letters
and those of David's time may be same, but of course there is nothing
to say that similar events could not be repeated over the course
of the three or four hundred years between the usual dating for
these two. Another theory is that Moses (an individual who is probably
much closer to the period in which the Amarna letters are written
than is David) is 'the rebel Mesh' of amelut-sagaz-Mesh (habiru)
of the Amarna letters.
c.1230
BC :
By
this time, four hundred years after their descent into Egypt (a
few scholars say only two hundred years), the Hebrews have multiplied
from a band of seventy into a people numbering thousands, but they
have been reduced to slavery. A nobility still exists, however,
and is represented in the sources by the descendants of Levi. The
most recent of his descendants is Moses, who possibly fulfils the
role of an advisor or even minister to an unnamed pharaoh who may
be Ramses II.
He now leads the loose confederation of Israelite tribes out of
Egypt, shortly after his marriage to a Midianite woman, Zipporah
daughter of Jethro the Midian priest. Moses is also claimed as an
ancestor figure of the early Ethiopian kings. Strangely, and perhaps
not coincidentally, the Old Testament has Moses first encountering
his god, Yahweh, in the form of a burning bush when he reaches the
land of the Midianites. Egyptian records mention that the Midianites
(whom they know as Shasu) are found at a place called YHW (probably
pronounced 'yahoo') in the deserts of southern Jordan. The name
seems to be picked up by the Israelites and passed on to others
they meet in Canaan.
c.1230
- 1170 BC :
Moses
: Son. Died after the conquest of Moab.
c.1200s
- 1020 BC :
This
is the period of Israelite settlement after the traditional exodus
from Egypt. At this time, there is general instability in the region:
the Hittite empire is destroyed in Anatolia, the Canaanites begin
to be reduced to owning the shores of Lebanon (to eventually become
the sea traders known as the Phoenicians), the Philistines and other
Sea Peoples are first settling on the lower coast of the Levant,
and various neo-Hittite city states are arising in northern Syria,
many of which come into contact with the Israelites.
It
has been strongly suggested that the Israelites themselves are Canaanites,
and that the exodus never occurs. This theory seems to be backed
up by archaeological finds, and in recent years the idea has gained
strengthen. The climate-induced social collapse of the end of the
thirteenth century BC - and the long lead-up towards it of perhaps
a century - results in groups of dispossessed people congregating
in Canaan in new groups, new communities. Known by the established
powers by various names, including habiru, these groups would
appear in essence to be drop-outs from established society, people
who want to find a new way of living outside what they see as an
unjust and restrictive society. Following the social collapse, which
terminates the Hittites and results in the declining fortunes of
Egypt, these new communities seemingly emerge as a new people, with
new, unfussy pottery, little art, simplistic houses with no grand
structures, and the beginnings of a monotheistic culture (the followers
of Yahweh - see circa 1230 BC, above). They have formed the
people known as the Israelites.
If,
on the other hand, the exodus is at its core accurate, if somewhat
exaggerated, then the Old Testament affords an almost unique look
at the settlement of a people in the ancient Near East. There is
no evidence to support a mass migration, but the movement of a smaller
group is viable. As they arrive and settle in the region, these
Israelites may join up with the habiru who have settled in
the hill country, and they may be joined by late additions to their
confederation of tribes: the tribes of Asher and Dan appear to originate
from the Weshesh and Danya. In local politics the Israelites have
various dealings with the city states in the Dead Sea region of
Canaan and southern Syria. These are mostly attempts at conquest,
successful or otherwise.
1208
BC :
In
a brief addendum to his victory stele. Pharaoh Merneptah of Egypt
mentions that Ashkelon, Gaza, and Yanoam (in the north Jordan Valley)
have been captured and that Israel 'has been shorn. Its seed no
longer exists'. The first two cities have probably already been
captured by the invading Philistines and are therefore targets for
'rescue' by a civilised king. Israel, too, is the name given to
a recently-arrived or formed group which would need to be brought
to heel (although the claim that its seed no longer exists is mere
boastfulness). This is the earliest definitive mention in history
of a people named 'Israel'.
c.1200
- 1198 BC :
The
Israelites conquer Arad the Canaanite before going on, within the
next couple of years, to defeat Moab and subjugate it. It has to
be wondered whether the Israelites (and even Moabites) are aware
of their shared origins (at least according the the Bible). Have
the Moabites been so dominated by Amorites that they are no longer
regarded as brothers? A number of minor city states are also conquered
by the Israelites, including those of the Midianites and various
other Canaanite cities.
c.1186
- 1168 BC :
The
southern Israelite territories are conquered and occupied by the
Philistines.
c.1170
- 1140s BC :
Joshua
: Son of Nun. Leader at start of the Israelite Settlement
Period.
c.1170
BC :
The
Canaanite king of Shalem leads the fragmented Jebusites against
Joshua, but they are defeated and conquered by the Israelites, with
their cities being incorporated into the Israelite state. Shalem
becomes the Israelite capital of Jerusalem, with the region being
occupied by the tribes of Benjamin and Judah, although control of
it appears to be lost to the Philistines, perhaps in c.1150 BC.
c.1160s
BC :
According
to the Old Testament, the Israelites conquer a large number of cities
in this decade, mostly Canaanite, and including Dor and Gezer. Not
all of these conquests can be backed up by archaeological evidence,
however. In fact, archaeology has shown very little evidence of
warfare in relation to most Canaanite cities around this time.
c.1150
BC :
After
apparently being militarily dominant since their arrival half a
century before, the Israelites suffer a reversal in fortunes when
at least some of them are subdued by Moab. More of their territory,
in the south, is conquered by the Philistines who maintain vassal
kings in Israel. Jerusalem is possibly freed entirely from Israelite
control at this stage, as King David is forced to re-conquer it
in 975 BC.
Time
of the Judges :
The
period of the Judges was described in the Old Testament book of
the same name. These were nominal rulers who were possibly priests,
and who held temporary authority over the twelve Israelite tribes
at various times. They were not actually called kings, but nevertheless
they did reign in a fashion, although they were rarely accepted
by all of the twelve tribes at the same time. They were usually
prominent during times of great need for the combined tribes, and
were usually charismatic leaders who led military campaigns as the
newly-arrived Israelites conquered Canaanite territory but were
in turn dominated from around 1150 BC by the Philistines.
Their 'reignal' lengths are as described in the Old Testament, but
it is impossible to calculate consecutive dates of reign for them
without going back to the exodus period, at which time the elders
(notably Moses) were still leading the tribes. With this in mind
it seems much more likely that they only led some of the tribes,
not all of them, and their reigns often overlapped, making any calculation
of reignal dates impossible.
At the time, Canaan was nominally under the governance of Egypt,
but it was preoccupied with repulsing incursions by the Sea Peoples.
The Israelite conquest itself was a series of independent battles
by the separate tribes for their independent portions of land (although
the book of Joshua attempts to portray it as a unified conquest,
something that is generally considered to be a later ideological
reconstruction of events). Shagmar's position in the list is open
to debate, and it is just as likely that he was an oppressor of
the Israelites as one of its judges.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Easton's Bible
Dictionary, Matthew George Easton (1897).)
fl
c.1140 BC :
Othniel
: First of the judges. 40 years.
c.1140
BC :
The
Israelites in the north are apparently under the rule of Aram-Nahara'im
for eight years, until its king, Cushan-Rishataim, is defeated by
Othniel. Other areas of Israelite territory remain dominated by
Eglon of Moab for eighteen years following the latter's military
victory around 1150 BC.
fl
c.1130 BC :
Ehud
ben Gera : Of the tribe of Benjamin. 80 years.
c.1130
BC :
Ehud
ben Gera assassinates the Moabite King Eglon and defeats his army
in battle. The result is a complete about-face in fortunes as Moab
is now conquered by the Israelites.
Shagmar
: Led the Israelites against the Philistines. 10 years.
Deborah
: Guided her commander, Barak, to victory. 40 years.
c.1125
BC :
Israel
is temporarily subdued by Jabin, 'king of Canaan', who rules his
Canaanite coalition from the northern city of Hazor, 'head of all
those kingdoms'. His associate, Sisera, is routed in battle by Joshua
at Merom, and Hazor itself is sacked and burned, possibly by the
Israelites who then annexe it to their state. However, the Israelites
are conquered by the Philistines who maintain vassal kings in Israel.
Jerusalem is possibly freed from Israelite control at this stage,
as King David is forced to re-conquer it in 975 BC.
Gideon
: Defeated the Midianites. Declined kingship. 40 years.
Upon
the death of Gideon, his son, Abimelech, is proclaimed king. One
of his first acts is to murder his brothers, seventy in number,
'on one stone', at Ophrah. Only one of them but the name of Jotham
escapes. Abimelech is an unprincipled, ambitious ruler, one who
is often engaged in war with his own subjects. When engaged in reducing
the town of Thebez, which had revolted, he is struck mortally on
his head by a millstone that is thrown by the hand of a woman from
the wall above. Perceiving that the wound is mortal, he desires
his armour-bearer to thrust him through with his sword so that it
might not be said he has perished by the hand of a woman.
Abimelech
: Son. Killed by his own people at Thebez. 3 years.
Tola
: Minor judge. 23 years.
Jair
: Minor judge. 22 years.
Jephthah
: Leader also during peacetime. 6 years.
c.1115
BC :
The
Israelite tribe of Menasseh defeats Og the Amorite and conquers
the Syrian city of Bashan. This victory, when combined with another
one over Sihon the Amorite in Ammon gives them possession of the
country east of the Jordan, from Arnon to the foot of Hermon.
Ibzan
: Minor judge. 7 years.
Elon
: Minor judge. 10 years.
Abdon
: Minor judge. 8 years.
fl
c.1110 BC :
Samson
:
Son of Manoah. Of the tribe of Dan. Died freeing Israel. 20 years.
c.1110
BC :
The
first recorded event in Samson's life is his marriage to a Philistine
woman of Timnath. An unblessed marriage, his wife is soon taken
from him and given 'to his companion'. In echoes of modern Levantine
politics, Samson takes revenge by burning the 'standing corn of
the Philistines'. They in turn 'burn his wife and her father'. Her
death is avenged 'terribly' by Samson. And so the cycle of violence
rests for a while. Following this, Samson serves as a judge for
the Israelites for twenty years before becoming infatuated with
Delilah, and is betrayed by her. He meets his death leading the
Israelites in freeing themselves from the control of the Philistines.
Eli
: High
priest & judge. Neck broken in an accident. 40 years.
c.1097
- 1095 BC :
A
civil war is fought in Israel.
c.1080
BC :
Israel
is subdued by the Midianites to the south (probably only on a very
local and temporary basis).
c.1050
BC :
Shiloh
is a Canaanite town that has become the central sanctuary site of
the Israelite confederacy during the period of the judges. Following
the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Tabernacle and the Ark of
the Covenant had been installed in Shiloh, but the Ark is now captured
by the Philistines during a battle at Ebenezer (site unknown), and
Shiloh is soon afterwards destroyed. Excavations at Khirbat Sayūn
in modern Jordan during 1920-1932 suggest that Shiloh remains a
ruin for several centuries. The Philistines decide to return the
Ark after about seven months.
![Ark of the Covenant](Israel_ArkCovenant01_full.jpg)
The
Israelite Ark of the Covenant is the stuff of legend, but it does
figure noticeably in the early centuries of Israel's history and,
despite being captured by the Philistines around 1050 BC, it seems
that even they couldn't hold onto it for long
Samuel
: Last
judge with possible authority over all the tribes. 30 years.
c.1040
- 1035 BC :
Joel
& Abiah :
Sons of Samuel. Judges in Beersheba only.
Kingdom
of Israel :
c.1035 - 928 BC
Around 1035 BC the comparatively weak Israelites reputedly founded
a small kingdom under Saul which also included the captured city
of Hazor. This was partially in response to attacks from Ammon,
which Saul realised could only be responded to with any effectiveness
if the Israelite tribes were united. Once it had been regained from
the Philistines, another major threat, Saul made their capital the
small walled city of Jerusalem. Much of the kingdom's territory
may have included the inland mountains, rather than the coastal
strip which forms a key part of modern Israel.
According
to Professor Mario Liverani, '...there are no extra-biblical sources
[specifically] mentioning the united kingdom of Judah and Israel,
but maybe this is due to the fact that such sources never existed.
In the tenth century BC Jerusalem was so small that only a palace
and a temple possibly existed... If we read the biblical text critically
but positively we may suggest a kingdom of limited dimensions, whose
limits were Shechem and Beersheba'. In fact, archaeological evidence
to an extent supports this view, suggesting that while Jerusalem
later became a great ancient city (by the ninth century), in King
David's time the city was far less glorious than is described in
the Old Testament. David ruled over something more like a poor chiefdom,
a town of cattle herders and shepherds. The evidence is open to
dispute, however, with carbon dating providing enough doubt for
some experts to claim that David really did at least start building
a great city, with Solomon continuing that work.
With
such a scarcity of data and only the Old Testament for support,
it's not surprising that the dates of rule for each king of Israel
have to be estimated. While the dates shown here are generally acceptable,
they are still open to some revision and will probably not fully
agree with every timeline. Solomon's death, for instance, could
be dated to 930 BC rather than 928 BC, as the Old Testament claims
that Egyptian Pharaoh Shesonk mounted a raid on the kingdom five
years after Solomon's death, and that raid can be pinned with some
certainty to 925 BC.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Sean Bambrough
and Wayne McCleese, and from the BBC documentary series, Bible's
Buried Secrets, first broadcast 15 March 2011.)
c.1035
- 1005 BC :
Saul
: Kingdom
founder. Deposed.
Saul
defeats Nahash, king of Ammon, after the citizens of the frontier
city of Jabesh-Gilead call for assistance against the Ammonite army.
He also hands Edom a defeat and possibly makes it a vassal of Israel.
c.1005
- 1003 BC :
Ishbaal
/ Ish-bo'-sheth : Son. Opposed by David. Murdered.
c.1005
- 1003 BC :
Ishbaal
reigns over Israel for just two years and is opposed by David throughout.
The latter king is proclaimed by Judah (suggesting that the later
division of Israel into Samaria and Judah is nothing of the kind
- in fact the kingdom may never be united in the first place or
is little more than a confederation of tribes at this stage). Civil
war sees David victorious and Ishbaal is murdered by his own captains.
They are later punished by David.
c.1005
- 965 BC :
David
: Son of Jesse of Bethlehem.
990s
BC :
The Israelites under David take the city state of Dor and incorporate
it into the kingdom. He also commits his parents to protect the
king of Moab, Mizpeh, a possible relation of his through his Moabite
mother, Ruth (according to tradition). However, this is the last
time the two kingdoms appear to share friendly relations.
c.980
BC :
Ammon is apparently conquered by Israel, despite assistance being
supplied by the northern state of Aram Damascus. However, some archaeological
findings suggest that the vast empire claimed by the Bible for David
is impossible. With only small villages within the 'kingdom's' borders
and a potential army of a few hundred men, David simply does not
have the manpower to create an empire, let alone maintain it. More
recent findings, especially of the fortress city of Kirbet Qeiyafa,
to the west of Jerusalem, suggest a measure of the opposite, that
there may indeed have been a dedicated military force to aid David
in building a small regional kingdom.
![Kirbet Qeiyafa](Israel_KirbetQeiyafa01_full.jpg)
Kirbet
Qeiyafa has lain virtually undisturbed for three millennia and provides
evidence of a fortress city in Davidian Israel
975
BC :
David
leads the Israelites to subdue the Philistines, regaining Jerusalem
from a Jebusite king and making the city his capital. One of Israel's
allies in David's reign is the Syrian city of Hamath, which remains
a close friend for centuries afterwards. David also permanently
subdues Edom, making it a dependency of Israel. To achieve any of
this, David has first to subdue Goliath, the giant champion of the
Philistines. Goliath is claimed as a resident or son of the Philistine
city of Gath, one of the five royal cities, and perhaps the greatest
of them at this time.
c.970?
BC :
David
conquers the city of Zobah, although one of its military officers
escapes and founds an important kingdom based at Aram Damascus.
This replaces the eclipsed Zobah as the main centre of Aramaean
power in the Levant.
c.966
BC :
Work
starts on the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem. The
Old Testament in the Book of Kings suggests something of the floor
plan by giving the measurements of the outer shell and details of
the insides. The floor plan would seem to resemble that of other
temples in Canaan, built by people who practice polytheism. The
closest match is a temple at modern Ain Dara in Syria (near the
ancient city of Alep), even down to very similar dimensions and
guarding cherubim. This temple dates to about 1300 BC and remains
in use until about 740 BC. Despite the building of their own temple
to one god, archaeological findings of pagan figurines show that
Israelites are far from entirely monotheistic at this stage.
965
BC :
Adonijah
: Attempted to steal the throne.
965
- 928 BC :
Solomon
: Son of David.
c.965?
BC :
Solomon meets the queen of Sheba (Saba) and according to legend
becomes the father of Menelik, founder of the Ethiopian empire.
Probably
in the same decade, a ruler of the Philistine city of Gath named
Achish is mentioned in connection with two servants of Shimei who
flee to him. Shimei goes to Gath in pursuit of them, in breach of
Solomon's orders, and is subsequently put to death by Solomon.
c.955
BC :
The First Temple of Jerusalem is completed, apparently by craftsmen
from Sidon under King Hiram of Tyre, and houses the Ark of the Covenant.
Solomon also enters into a matrimonial alliance with Sidon.
c.930s
BC :
Solomon's elaborate building operations and lavish personal existence
have already led to forced labour, high taxes, and increasing unrest
amongst the populace. In the later years of his reign, his enemies
increase, 'divinely raised up to chasten him'. One of these is Rezon,
the son of Eliada, a former officer of Zobah who has assumed control
of Aram Damascus.
928
BC :
Rehoboam
: Son of Solomon. Mother was Naamah the Ammonite.
928
- 925 BC :
Because he fails to heed the demands of the people to rescind Solomon's
heavy tax and labour demands, the ten tribes of the north refuse
to accept Rehoboam at the confirmation ceremony at Shechem and civil
war ensues. Rehoboam is left with just the tribes of Judah and Benjamin
in the south as the kingdom divides into Samaria (Israel) and Judah.
However,
there is a possibility that the two kingdoms are never united in
the first place. The Old Testament's attitude towards the northern
kingdom, and a sidelining of its major rulers and successes, suggests
that a level of antipathy always exists between the two regions.
The story of David's united kingdom may be propaganda, an attempt
to back up later claims to a single Israel and all the territory
that this may encompass.
Kingdom
of Judah :
928 - 586 BC :
Around 1035 BC the comparatively weak Israelites reputedly founded
a small kingdom of Israel. The process seems to have been due -
at least in part - to attacks by Ammon. The Israelites realised
the only effective response was to unite the Israelite tribes. Once
it had been regained from the Philistines, another major threat,
the capital became the small walled city of Jerusalem. The kingdom
held a largely united front until civil war divided it in two (according
to the Old Testament).
From
925 BC Jerusalem was the capital of the southern division of two
of the twelve Israelite tribes, these being the tribes of Judah
and Benjamin. It kept the conquered kingdom of Edom as a dependency.
The civil war which had divided Israel rumbled on with occasional
flare-ups over successive generations, and this served to weaken
both states. After the fall of the northern kingdom of Samaria in
721 BC and the conquests by Assyria, Judah became the sole surviving
Israelite state, existing only in Jerusalem, the rest of its former
lands now largely being under Assyrian occupation. Its population
was swelled by the pouring in of refugees escaping the Assyrian
rule of Samaria. Only then did Jerusalem grow to become a great
city.
Additionally,
even the Old Testament is unable to completely hide the fact that
polytheism seemed to be prevalent throughout Canaan, even Hebrew
Canaan. The early god El, who unmasked himself to Abraham as Yahweh,
may have had a consort called Asherah, and a court of lesser gods
in the typical format of Canaanite societies. Perhaps Jeroboam of
Samaria was simply being more true to the origins of his people
while the Babylonian period Judeans who wrote down the books that
make up the Old Testament had a completely different viewpoint.
All dating here is arguable to an extent. Various scholars have
proposed their own dating which can result in variances of four
or five years up or down from the dates that are shown here.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Wayne McCleese,
and from External Link: Israel and the Aramaeans (Quartz
Hill School of Theology).)
928
- 911 BC :
Rehoboam
: Retained only the southern part of the former united
kingdom.
928
- 925 BC :
The
break-up of Israel has allowed Damas to rapidly grow in power and
at times even threaten the existence of its southern neighbour.
It is frequently called upon by Judah to help against Samaria and
probably gains some of the latter's northern towns during this period.
Also not specifically mentioned in the Old Testament, Wayne McCleese
believes that a treaty exists between Tab-Rimmon of Damas and the
kingdom of Judah (based on 1 Kings 15:19).
c.925
BC :
Egyptian Pharaoh Shesonk mounts a full-scale invasion of Samaria,
but mainly ignores Judah. Jerusalem is relatively untouched following
a short siege by the invaders, although some Temple treasures are
looted.
911
- 908 BC :
Abijam
/ Abijah : Son. Fought against Israel.
908
- 867 BC :
Asa
: Son.
c.860s?
BC :
Asa
and Ba'asa (Baasha), ruler of Ammon, maintain a near-lifelong feud.
When Ba'asa pushes Samaria's frontier to within five miles of Jerusalem,
Asa, just like his father before him when under pressure, calls
on Damas for help. In this case it is Ben-Hadad who responds to
Asa's offer of payment if Damas will break its treaty with Ammon.
871
- 847 BC :
Jehoshaphat
: Son. Joint rule for five years.
853 BC :
Ahab
of Samaria is a member of an alliance of states which also includes
Ammon, Arvad, Byblos, Damas, Edom, Egypt, Hamath, and Kedar. Together
they fight Shalmaneser III of Assyria in a battle which consists
of the largest known number of combatants to date, and is the first
historical mention of the Arabs from the southern deserts. Despite
claims to the contrary, the Assyrians are defeated, since they do
not press on to their nearest target, Hamath.
![Map of Canaan and Syria c.850 BC](Map850BC_full.jpg)
When
the Neo-Assyrian empire threatened the various city states of southern
Syria and Canaan around 853 BC, they united to protect their joint
territory - successfully it seems, at least for a time
c.850
/ c.847 BC :
The
Philistines sack Jerusalem about 850 BC, and this would fit in well
with another event of the same year. The alliance of states of 853
BC breaks up when Ahab of Samaria, assisted by Jehoshaphat, wages
war against Damas at Ramoth Gilead. Ahab meets his death there,
and the defeat may well make Judah vulnerable to an opportunistic
attack by the Philistines.
Around
three years later, Jehoshaphat, together with Joram of Samaria and
the king (or governor) of Edom, form a coalition which attempts
to retake Moab by force, but despite some initial gains the attempt
is unsuccessful.
846
- 843 BC :
Jehoram
: Son. m Athalia, dau of Ahab of Samaria.
843
- 842 BC :
Ahaziah
: Son. Killed by Jehu of Samaria.
842
BC :
Ahaziah
of Judah and Joram of Samaria engage Hazael of Damas in battle at
Ramoth-Gilead (seemingly a common location for battles in this period).
Joram is wounded and retreats to Jezreel where Ahaziah rejoins him.
Both are killed there by Jehu, who then seizes the throne of Samaria.
842
- 836 BC :
Athaliah
: Queen. Mother of Ahaziah & daughter of Omri of Samaria.
c.840
BC :
Jehu
puts an end to the house of Omri of Samaria by massacring the entire
royal family and seizing the throne. The only known survivor is
Omri's daughter, Athaliah, who is queen in Judah. Soon after his
reign begins, and despite Old Testament claims to the contrary,
Moab defeats Samaria and Damas takes all the Hebrew possessions
east of the Jordan, ravaging Judah, and rendering Samaria impotent.
Later in his reign, Jehu is also represented on the Black Obelisk
of Shalmaneser III as submitting to Assyria, the only representation
of an Israelite ruler in existence today.
836
- 798 BC :
Joash
/ Jehoash : Son of Ahaziah of Judah.
During his reign, the Judah of Joash is comparatively weak. Damas
to the north, commanded by the active and aggressive usurper, Hazael,
is clearly the dominant regional power. Joash has to pay him off
at least once to get him to leave Jerusalem alone.
798
- 781 BC :
Amaziah
: Son. Murdered.
781
- 740 BC :
Uzziah
/ Azariah / Azarias : Son.
740
BC :
Uzziah
is struck with leprosy in front of the Ark of the Covenant and dies
soon afterwards.
740
- 736 BC :
Jotham
/ Yotham : Son.
736
- 716 BC :
Ahaz
: Son. Assyrian vassal from 733 BC.
734
- 733 BC :
Pekah
of Samaria and Rezon II of Damas form an anti-Assyrian coalition.
They try to force Ahaz to join them but are stopped when Tiglath-Pileser
III marches an army into the region (partially thanks to payments
of silver and gold by Ahaz). Over the next two years he re-conquers
all the rebellious states, and takes Damas. Judah becomes an Assyrian
vassal, but the king remains on the throne.
721
BC :
Sennacherib
of Assyria conquers all of Israel and Judah except the city of Jerusalem
itself, to which he lays siege. As documented by Isaiah (who wrote
the Book of Isaiah chapters 1-39 himself at this time), Hezekiah
addresses the Ark of the Covenant in the Temple of Solomon and Sennacherib's
forces are decimated, whether by plague or the power of the Ark
itself is unknown. With much of the rest of the Israelite lands
remaining occupied, the Jewish faith and their god, Yahweh, survive
only in this one small pocket which is now little more than a city
state.
716
- 687 BC :
Hezekiah
: Lands reduced. Assyrian vassal.
716
- 702 BC :
Hezekiah
has dealings with the usurper king of Babylonia, Marduk-apla-iddina
II (Merodach-Baladan), between these dates. In 701, Hezekiah's refusal
to pay tribute to Assyria leads to Sennacherib besieging Jerusalem
until the wayward king capitulates.
687
- 642 BC :
Manasseh
: Son of Hezekiah. Crowned at the age of twelve.
687
- 642 BC :
The
first Jewish monarch to turn his back on the established faith,
Manasseh introduces pagan idols and worship, and persecutes the
prophets, leading a sustained campaign against the worship of Yahweh.
The Old Testament (2 Kings 21:11-16) proclaims that Manasseh is
the reason that Jerusalem and Judah will be destroyed.
It
seems possible that the Ark of the Covenant is withdrawn from Jerusalem
by 650 BC by its Levite protectors. At the same time, Israelites
are known to be settling in Egypt, on the island of Elephantine.
Manasseh is captured by the Assyrians and is treated terribly. He
humbles himself and repents of his bad ways, is forgiven and serves
Yahweh for the rest of his life.
642
- 640 BC :
Amon
: Son. Assassinated by royal household for his paganism.
640
- 609 BC :
Josiah
: Son. Killed by Nech of Egypt.
640
- 609 BC :
Josiah
is aged eight when he succeeds to the throne. The Old Testament
books, Deuteronomy and I Kings, are compiled during his reign, which
sees a return to established religious practices - with some modernising
- but the king is later killed fighting Egypt.
c.626
BC :
Jeremiah composes at least part of his eponymous Biblical book at
the start of his prophetic ministry.
609
- 608 BC :
Jehoahaz
II : Third son of Josiah. Ruled for 3 months.
608
BC :
Necho
of Babylon deposes Jehoahaz and imposes his successor on the kingdom
in the form of Jehoiakim.
608
- 597 BC :
Jehoiakim
: Son of Josiah. Rebellion against Babylonian rule.
597
BC :
Jehoiachin
/ Jeconiah : Son. Ruled 3 months. Taken into captivity
in Babylon.
597 BC :
For its continued support of Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar invades and occupies
Jerusalem (with the help of Ammon), showing no hesitation in stripping
the city of its treasures. The Judeans are made vassals under Babylonia,
and 10,000 subjects are shipped to Babylon, including the ruling
elite. Moab apparently takes advantage of Judah's fall, joining
in the plunder and seizing some of its territory.
Jehoiachin
retains his status in Babylon, at least as far as his own people
are concerned. He is the 'Prince of Judah' until 560 BC during the
Exile period, although one record of him in Babylon states that
he and his five sons are recipients of food rations.
597
- 586 BC :
Zedekiah
/ Sedecias : Son of Josiah. Babylonian puppet king.
587/586
BC :
Zedekiah
rebels against Babylonian overlordship and Jerusalem is sacked by
Babylonia. Zedekiah himself is captured and forced to watch the
execution of his children before his eyes are poked out. Much of
the population is moved to Babylon. Judah becomes a province of
Babylon. The First Temple is burnt to the ground after being pillaged.
The Israelite kingdom has been destroyed and its line of kings ended,
although Zedekiah himself is taken to Babylon with his enslaved
people.
Babylonian
Governors of Judah :
586 BC :
The
first governor, Gedaliah, appears to have served in a high position
within the Judahite royal court at least as early at 600 BC. An
inscription with his name has been found at Lachish, to the south-west
of Jerusalem. Other references to him suggest he supported a more
conciliatory approach to the Babylonians. Gedaliah's story is told
in 2 Kings 25:22-26 and Jeremiah 39:13-14; and 40:1-41:18. He is
introduced as Gedaliah son of Ahikam and grandson of Shaphan, a
prominent scribe of the period and the head of a household that
supported both Josiah's religious reforms and the prophet Jeremiah.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Sean Bambrough,
from the BBC documentary series, Bible's Buried Secrets,
first broadcast 22 March 2011, from The Persian Empire, J
M Cook (1983), from A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire,
M A Dandamaev, from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996),
from Ctesias' Persica in its Near Eastern Context, Matt
Waters, and from External Link: Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
586
BC :
Gedaliah
ben Achikam : Babylonian governor of Judah. Based in Mitzpah.
586
BC :
Gedaliah is killed by the remaining populace during a rebellion
which is instigated by Baalis of Ammon. In retribution, even more
of the population is shipped to Babylon. The former king of Judah,
Jehoiachin, and his successor are termed princes of Judah while
the tribes are held in Exile in Babylon. The names of any subsequent
Babylonian governors of Judah seem to be unknown.
585
- 539? BC :
?
: Unknown Babylonian governors of Judah.
539 BC :
Persia's Cyrus the Great enters Babylon. Cyrus adopts an enlightened
attitude to his subjects and allows the Judeans to return to Jerusalem,
after officially handing over all their captured idols and treasures.
He also proclaims that they can rebuild their temple. This policy
is probably to encourage pro-Persian support in the Levant, a region
which bears distinctly pro- Egyptian sympathies.
Princes
of Judah in Exile :
597 - 539 BC :
Incorporating Persian Satraps of Judah
This
was a period of occupation and overlordship for Judah, firstly from
Babylonia, then Persia, the Greek empire, Ptolemaic Egypt, and the
Seleucid empire in Syria, before a Judean revolt gave the people
a free state once again, albeit a small one. Large numbers of Israelites
and Judeans had been shipped off to Assyria and Babylon respectively
following the fall of their kingdoms, leaving some areas considerably
reduced in terms of population. Now, with good land going begging,
the Edomites and probably Moabites too began migrating northwards
to fill the vacuum. Their movement allowed Arab tribes to venture
northwards from their desert territories, with the result that the
Kedarites and Nabatu became players in international politics during
the seventh and sixth centuries BC.
The
shock for the Judeans in their defeat by Babylon went deeper than
simply losing their territory and freedom. Their god, Yahweh, had
been defeated by alien gods (although their own view was more a
case of having been defeated for not being true to Yahweh and also
having failed to keep the Sabbath). Perhaps a radical change was
needed in the way Hebrews worshipped. During this period, the books
that made up the Old Testament were assembled from writings which
covered the previous five or six centuries (including the story
of Noah and the flood - see feature link). However, the Hebrews
who managed this were probably, and perhaps suddenly, leaning towards
a monotheistic message, and a rejection of the polytheism that had
gone before. The Old Testament is littered with examples of text
that seems to have been amended to cover up that previous polytheism,
even to the extent that Yahweh's consort is obscured. It seems more
likely that the true monotheism that Hebrews, Christians, and Muslims
follow today was only truly solidified by the second century BC,
perhaps during the Maccabaean period.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Sean Bambrough,
from the BBC documentary series, Bible's Buried Secrets,
first broadcast 22 March 2011, from The Persian Empire, J
M Cook (1983), from A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire,
M A Dandamaev, from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996),
from Ctesias' Persica in its Near Eastern Context, Matt Waters,
and from External Link: Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
597
- 560 BC :
Jehoiachin / Jeconiah : 'Prince of Judah'. Former king
of Judah.
597 - 560 BC :
As the dethroned final independent king of Judah, Jehoiachin retains
his status in Babylon, at least as far as his own people are concerned.
He is the 'Prince of Judah' until 560 BC during the exile, although
one record of him in Babylon states that he and his five sons are
recipients of food rations. That must be early on, however. In 562
BC he is freed from captivity by the new king, Amêl Marduk, and
given a position in the royal court.
![Babylon](Babylon_City02_full.jpg)
Babylon
was one of the biggest, most heavily-populated centres of population
in the ancient world of the early first millennium
587/586 BC :
Zedekiah, the Babylonian puppet king of Judah, rebels against Babylonian
overlordship and Jerusalem is sacked as a result. Zedekiah himself
is captured and forced to watch the execution of his children before
his eyes are poked out. Much of the population is moved to Babylon.
Judah becomes a province of Babylon. The First Temple is burnt to
the ground after being pillaged. The Israelite kingdom has been
destroyed and its line of kings ended, although Zedekiah himself
is taken to Babylon with his enslaved people.
586
- 538 BC :
Gedaliah, the Babylonian governor of Judah, is killed by the remaining
populace during a rebellion which is instigated by Baalis of Ammon.
In retribution, even more of the population is shipped to Babylon.
The names of any subsequent Babylonian governors of Judah seem to
be unknown.
560
- after 537 BC :
Sheshbazzar : Son. 'Prince of Judah'. Persian governor
in 539 BC.
539 - 538 BC :
Persia's Cyrus the Great enters Babylon. Cyrus adopts an enlightened
attitude to his subjects and allows the Judeans to return to Jerusalem,
after officially handing over all their captured idols and treasures.
He also proclaims that they can rebuild their temple. This policy
is probably to encourage pro-Persian support in the Levant, a region
which bears distinctly pro- Egyptian sympathies.
During
the Persian period, the kingdom or state of Moab disappears from
the historical record. The fate of the Moabites is not clear, but
they may be migrating northwards to fill Israelite lands that have
been emptied by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia. The Edomites certainly
are allowed to do just this, but they retain their identity while
the Moabites seem not to.
![Second Temple in Jerusalem](Israel_SecondTemple01_full.jpg)
Construction
of the Second Temple in Jerusalem was begun on the order of Persian
King Cyrus the Great, with the work being under the direct command
of his satraps in Judah. Sheshbazzar and Zorobabel
537 - 520 BC :
Sheshbazzar is instructed by Cyrus the Great to begin construction
of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, sited over the ruins of the First
Temple. He is supplied with the store of gold and silver vessels
that Nebuchadnezzar had removed. In 520 BC, Zorobabel (Zerubbabel),
a grandson of Jehoiachin (although the precise connection is debated),
is commanded to complete the now-stalled work on the temple. His
superior would be Tattenai of Ebir-nāri, while he is accompanied
in his work by Joshua, first of the High Priests of Judah.
520
- ? BC :
Zorobabel / Zerubbabel : Nephew. Satrap of Judah for Persia.
c.517 BC :
The Second Temple is completed and the population at last know for
certain that the Ark of the Covenant has been lost when it is not
available to be re-sited inside the new temple's Holy of Holies.
They already had doubts, knowing as they did that it had not been
taken into captivity with them.
Great
Jews & High Priests of Judah :
(c.515 - 159 BC Incorporating Persian
Satraps of Judah)
From the time of Ezra and Nehemiah until the conquest of the region
by Alexander the Great the religious leaders and teachers of the
Jewish people were the Great Assembly and the Sopherim (the Great
Jews or Great Priests), who could trace their descent from the Judges
of pre-kingdom Israel. The great priests disappeared under Hellenic
control, and it was realised that a new institution of a similar
nature was required in order to maintain religious unity and teach
the law, so the Sanhedrin was formed (the High Priests). However,
under the Greek empire and its Seleucid descendant, Judean culture
and religion was under pressure to Hellenise. The chronology down
to the Greek conquest is disputed, but this version seems to be
the most reliable.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from Jewish War
& Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, and from External
Link: Encyclopĉdia Britannica.)
c.515
- 490 BC :
Jeshua
/ Joshua : Son of High Priest Jehozadak. Worked with Zorobabel.
520
- c.517 BC :
In 520 BC, Zorobabel (Zerubbabel), a grandson of the 'Prince in
Exile' Jehoiachin, is commanded to complete the now-stalled work
on the Second Temple. His superior would be Tattenai of Ebir-nāri,
while he is accompanied in his work by Joshua, first of the high
priests of Judah.
![Xerxes the Great and Esther](Persia_XerxesI_01_full.jpg)
Xerxes
is pictured with Esther, daughter of Mordecai, who marries him to
foil a plot by the chief adviser, Haman, to organise a pogrom against
the Jews (Xerxes in this Old Testament story is known as Ahasuerus)
fl
c.510s? BC :
Meshullam?
: Uncertain Persian governor of Judah.
c.490
- 470 BC :
Joiakim
: Son.
c.470
- 433 BC :
Eliashib
: Son.
459
BC :
Ezra, a 'scribe', leads the second body of exiled Israelites back
to Jerusalem from Babylon. He also writes the Book of Ezra, and
according to tradition collects and edits the books of the Old Testament.
446
- 433 BC :
Nehemiah
/ Nechemiah : Persian governor of Judah. Author of the
Book of Nemiah.
446
- 444 BC :
Nehemiah, probably of the house of Judah, is appointed governor
of Judea by Artaxerxes I of Persia. Despite hindrance from Ammon,
he commands that Jerusalem be rebuild and restored, and this process
ends with the restoration of the city's walls in 444 BC. After his
period of governorship is over, he returns to Persia, but has to
revisit Judea two years later to put right the abuses of power that
have taken place in his absence.
c.433
- 410 BC :
Joiada
: Son.
431
- 413? BC :
Nehemiah
/ Nechemiah : Second governorship. Governed until his death?
Judea
is annexed to the satrapy of Coele-Syria, and is governed by the
high priest under the jurisdiction of the governor of Syria. The
internal government of the country became more and more a hierarchy.
c.410
- 371 BC :
Jonathan
/ Johanan : Son of Eliashib.
410
- 400 BC :
Correspondence between the Jews at Elephantine in Egypt and Jerusalem
fully ceases between 410-400 BC. With Persian influence having been
removed from Upper Egypt in 410 BC, the Egyptians on Elephantine
take the opportunity of destroying the Jewish Temple, convinced
that the Jews have been collaborating with the occupying power.
The Jewish community seems to move to western Abyssinia, in Ethiopia,
where it flourishes.
c.371
- 320 BC :
Jaddua
/ Jaddus : Son. Sometimes identified as Simeon Justus.
333
- 332 BC :
In 334 BC Alexander of Macedon launches his campaign into the Persian
empire by crossing the Dardanelles. Much of Anatolia falls by 333
BC and Alexander proceeds into Syria during 333-332 BC to receive
the submission of Ebir-nāri, which also gains him Harran, Judah,
and Phoenicia (principally Byblos and Sidon, with Tyre holding out
until it can be taken by force). Athura, Gaza, and Egypt also capitulate
(not without a struggle in Gaza's case). With Judah having been
captured, the Great Assembly and Sopherim disappear.
c.320
- 280 BC :
Onias
I : Son of Jaddua.
312
BC :
Alexander's
former general, Ptolemy of Egypt, conquers Jerusalem and grants
the people autonomy.
c.280
- 260 BC :
Simon
I the Just / Simeon Justus : Son.
c.260
- 245 BC :
Eleazar
: Brother.
c.245
- 240 BC :
Manasseh
: Son of Jaddua.
c.240
- 218 BC :
Onias
II : Son of Simon.
218
- 185 BC :
Simon
II : Son of Onias II.
198
BC :
Antiochus III of the Seleucid empire invades Coele Syria as part
of the Fifth Syrian War and defeats Ptolemaic General Scopas
at Panion near the source of the River Jordan in 200 BC. This gains
him control of Palestine and Phoenicia, and Antiochus grants special
rights to the Jewish temple state. The Sanhedrin is established
around three years later, officiated over by the High Priests.
185
- 175 BC :
Onias
III : Son. Murdered near Antioch in 170 BC.
175
BC :
As
well as founding many cities and colonies across the empire, Antiochus
IV also introduces a steady Hellenisation of the Seleucid empire,
especially of its Oriental (eastern) peoples. Various eastern temple
organisation are riled by this, and none more so than that of Palestine.
They are loath to relinquish the relative freedoms that they have
enjoyed since the time of Antiochus III. At this time they are divided
into two parties, the orthodox Hasideans (the Pious Ones) and a
reform party that favours Hellenism. Onias III now comes into conflict
with the Seleucid authorities and is replaced by his brother and
later murdered. The Seleucids believe they have the authority to
appoint high priests of their choice, breaking the hereditary nature
of the position.
175
- 172 BC :
Jason
: Brother.
172
BC :
Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV has been in favour of the reform party
that is headed by Jason, but now his rival Menelaus is appointed
in his place. This is in return for an even greater payment of tribute
than that given by Jason for the post.
Menelas
/ Menelaus : Originally called Onias, according to Josephus.
Onias
IV : Son of Onias III.
172
- 162 BC :
Onias
IV flees to Egypt and founds a temple at Leontopolis (which survives
until AD 66).
167
BC :
While
Antiochus IV has been campaigning in Egypt, former high priest Jason
has conquered Jerusalem, other than the citadel, and has murdered
many adherents of his rival, Menelaus. Upon Antiochus' return in
167 BC he storms Jerusalem and enforces its Seleucid Hellenisation.
The city forfeits its privileges and is permanently garrisoned by
Syrian soldiers. The Jews see this action as a defilement of Jerusalem.
The Maccabaean revolt begins and a splinter state of Judea is formed,
governed by rulers who do not belong to the Israelite royal houses.
Hasmonaean
(Jewish Independent / Maccabaean) Dynasty :
165 - 37 BC :
Antiochus IV had tried to introduce Hellenic culture into Jerusalem
as part of a steady process of Helenicising the entire empire, especially
its eastern provinces. In Jerusalem the Sanhedrin itself became
heavily Hellenised, but the populace in general distrusted such
attempts to change their way of life. This distrust degenerated
into open revolt when all worship of Yaweh was banned on pain of
death, and an altar to Zeus Olympios was erected in the Temple itself.
The
resulting Maccabaean revolt split Judea away from Seleucid control.
Judas Maccabeus led the anti-Greek Jews and the angered Hasideans
in a guerrilla war, and several times they were able to defeat Seleucid
generals who had been sent to stop them. Judas refused a partial
amnesty and instead conquered Judea, with the exception of the Acra
in Jerusalem. In December 164 BC he was able to tear down the altar
of Zeus and re-consecrate the Temple, and the Jews were able to
recreate their own independent state based around Jerusalem.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Jewish War
& Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from A History
of the Jews, Paul Johnson (1987), and from External Links:
Encyclopĉdia Britannica, and Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian
Wars at Livius.org, and Diodorus of Sicily at the Library of
World History (dead link).)
167
- 166 BC :
Mattatia
Maccabeus
165
- 160 BC :
Judas
Maccabeus : Freed Judea of Seleucid rule. Killed.
162
BC :
The
reign of young Antiochus V of the Seleucid empire is a busy one.
Recognised by Rome in favour of his uncle, Demetrius, he and his
regent, Lysias, then suffer the revolt of Timarchus, satrap of Media
in 163 BC. They win a victory in the war against Judas Maccabeus
at Beth-Zechariah in 162 BC, but then Antiochus' advisor, Philip,
revolts in Antioch. A peace treaty is agreed with the Maccabaeans,
giving them favourable terms because the Seleucid troops are needed
in Antioch and Media. Antiochus is killed by his own uncle before
he can use those troops.
![Jerusalem](Israel_Jerusalem02_full.jpg)
Jerusalem
of the Hasmonaean period was an expanding city with a burgeoning
population and a thriving spirit of independence that was supported
by the lack of Seleucid coordination and ability to recapture the
city
162
- 159 BC :
Alcimus
: High priest of Judah, seemingly with Seleucid backing.
Died.
160
BC :
On 27 March, Judas Maccabeus defeats a Seleucid force under Nicanor
at Adasa, killing the Greek general in the process. Is this when
Ammon is conquered and drawn into the kingdom. In less than a year,
Judus himself is killed at Elasa by another Seleucid force under
the command of Bacchides. Jonathan Apphus succeeds his brother.
160
- 143 BC :
Jonathan
Apphus : Brother. Killed.
152
BC :
The
rebellion of Seleucid pretender Alexander Balas really gets underway
in 152 BC. He is supported by Egypt and Rome, both of whom are only
too happy to see chaos and confusion within Seleucid territory,
as well as by Cappadocia. Jonathan Apphus of Judea also supports
the rebel, and in return is recognised as high priest of Judah.
This serves as official recognition of the Hasmonaeans and unites
their leadership with the position of high priest. Judea subsequently
enjoys several years of peace, especially when Seleucid ruler Demetrius
is defeated near Antioch.
146
- 145 BC :
The
son of Demetrius, Demetrius II, begins a revolt against Alexander
Balas, ruler of the Seleucid empire. Demetrius' general, Apollonius,
is defeated by Jonathan Apphus, but Alexander's position grows increasingly
tenuous. He attempts to flee at the start of 145 BC but is killed
by Nabateans.
142
- 134 BC :
Simon
Thassi : Brother.
142
BC :
Seleucid rival claimant Antiochus VI has already been recognised
in Antioch (in 145 BC), and Demetrius has been forced to flee to
Seleucia near Babylon, although he only makes it thanks to soldiers
from Judea who save his life. In 142 BC, despite the killing of
Jonathan Apphus of Jerusalem, the Maccabees remain uncontested there
once Demetrius recognises his successor and withdraws the Seleucid
garrison for his war efforts. This, in effect, is a de facto
recognition of Jerusalem's independence.
134
BC :
Antiochus VII is the last Seleucid emperor of the east. He invades
Judea in 134 BC and besieges Jerusalem. John Hyrcanus is made high
priest, but Antiochus makes no other intervention into the religious
sphere of Jewish life. After the death of the Arsacid King Mithradates
I in 132 BC, Antiochus goes on to launch a campaign to recover lost
Seleucid domains in the east.
134
- 104 BC :
John
Hyrcanus I : Son.
126
- 123 BC :
Despite the apparent victory of Seleucid pretender Alexander II
at Tyre and Damascus, he is unable to conquer Syria even with the
support of John Hyrcanus in Judea. Seleucus V has succeeded his
father, although 'only' as co-ruler with his mother, Cleopatra Thea.
The war goes on, mostly well to the north of Judea.
109
BC :
The Seleucid civil war continues through 111-109 BC, while Antiochus
IX and his ally, Ptolemy IX Soter of Egypt, support the Samarians
(of the former northern Jewish kingdom of Samaria) against John
Hyrcanus of Judea, until Rome intervenes on the side of the Jews
and against Antiochus IX and the Samarians. At the same time, Idumaea
is drawn into the Hasmonaean kingdom.
104
- 103 BC :
Aristobulus
I : Son.
103
- 76 BC :
Alexander
Jannĉus : Brother.
93
- 90 BC :
A number of Nabataeans are forcibly converted to Judaism by Alexander
Jannĉus (Jannaeus). Once he has safely put down a local rebellion
he invades and occupies the Nabataean towns of Gilead and Moab.
There he imposes tribute although the amount is unknown. The Nabataean
king, Obodas I, has prepared for such an attack and is soon able
to respond by ambushing Alexander's forces near Gaulane. The Judean
army is destroyed in 90 BC and Obodas is able to gain control of
the Hauran and Jebal Druze. Seleucid ruler Demetrius also involves
himself against Alexander Jannĉus, but he soon has to break off
to return to the Seleucid civil war.
76
- 67 BC :
John
Hyrcanus II : Son.
67
- 63 BC :
Aristobulus
II : Brother.
63
- 40 BC :
John
Hyrcanus II : Restored.
63
BC :
Rome invades Palestine, making it a province. Hyrcanus rules by
Roman decree.
40
- 37 BC :
Antigonus
: Son of Aristobulus.
37
BC :
The
Herodite Dynasty, originating from Idumaea, is set up to control
the area as a puppet state. The line of high priests continues,
but is no longer in charge of Judea.
Herodite
Dynasty of Judea :
37 BC - AD 44? :
Son of the Hasmonaean official, Antipater the Idumaean, Herod was
set up as a puppet ruler by Rome. Despite being pro-Cassius during
the civil war between the supporters of Julius Caesar and his murderers,
Rome felt that it was important to retain Herod's services in order
to keep the anti-Roman nobility suppressed. Herod was able to appoint
the governor of Idumaea as part of his duties. During various periods
of his reign and that of his descendants, Judea was sometimes also
given control of the client kingdom of Batanaea, just beyond the
Golan Heights.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Dana Grohol, from
the BBC documentaries, The Lost Gospels and The Dead Sea
Scrolls, both first screened in 2006, from Cultural and Religious
Heritage of India: Christianity, Suresh K Sharma & Usha
Sharma (Eds), and from External Link: Catholic Online.)
37
- 4 BC :
Herod
the Great : Brought in from Idumaea to rule.
37
BC :
Herod
begins the renovation of the Temple, and the expansion of the Temple
Mount.
32
- 31 BC :
Supported by Cleopatra of Egypt, Herod launches an attack on the
Nabataeans. His well-organised troops, which include a large mounted
force, plunder the kingdom and occupy Dium. The Nabataean forces
amass near Canatha in Syria, but are attacked and routed. With Cleopatra
now troubled by Herod's success, General Athenion of Egypt sends
a force of Canathans to the aid of the Nabataeans, and this enlarged
army is able to crush Herod's army. It flees to Ormiza but Herod
returns the following year to once again overrun the kingdom.
30?
BC :
An earthquake hits Judea, seemingly soon after the conflicts of
33-32 BC. Herod offers the Nabataeans a peaceful continuation of
his domination of them but they choose to rebel. They invade Judea,
but Herod immediately crosses the River Jordan to Philadelphia (modern
Amman) and, once he has sighted the Nabataean forces, he attacks
their outer while they are holding off from battle. The confused
Nabataeans are defeated and retreat into a defensive camp. Herod
lays siege, with some defenders surrendering before the remainder
are refused surrender terms. The Nabataeans lose the battle and
effectively remain under Herod's domination.
c.11
- 6 BC :
Jesus, the son of Mary and her husband, Joseph the carpenter (whatever
his role in the actual conception of the child), is viewed by some
of his peers in Judea as the messiah foretold in the Old Testament.
The exact dates relating to him are uncertain, but the year of his
birth is traditionally accepted as being 11 BC or 7 BC. However,
the census of Quirnius is held in 6 BC, which is the event that
forces Mary and Joseph to return home when the former is heavily
pregnant.
The
birth most likely takes place around September, as there is mention
of sheep and shepherds being out overnight. In winter the sheep
would have been kept indoors overnight so the temperature is clearly
too warm for this, and the weather is still convenient for travel.
The name of the newborn child is probably more correctly pronounced
as Joshua or Yeshua in the original Hebrew, before being passed
through Greek, Latin and English.
4
BC - AD 6 :
Herod
Archelaus : Son of Herod. Puppet under Roman Procurator's
rule.
AD
6? - 34 :
Philip
: Son of Herod. Puppet. Also governed Batanaea.
26
- 36 :
Pontius
Pilatus (Pilate) is appointed as the fifth Roman prefect or procurator
of Judea. The 'Pilate Stone', a carved limestone block found by
archaeologists at the site of Caesarea Maritima in 1961, confirms
Pilate's existence outside of the New Testament. It is likely that
Caesarea Maritima serves as his main centre of operations.
c.30
- 33 :
Generally
accepted by historians to be a healer, Jesus starts to preaches
the restoration of God's kingdom (probably meaning a restoration
of the church organisation within Judea, He is soon viewed with
suspicion by the Jewish authorities, along with the occupying Romans,
and is arrested, tried and executed by crucifixion about AD 33,
the operation being ordered by the Jewish government and overseen
by the Romans.
![Jesus of Nazareth](Israel_Jesus02_full.jpg)
The
teachings of Jesus (whatever his true nature) drew a large following
amongst the occupied peoples of Judea and inspired the creation
of a new church
c.33
- 42 :
Whether the plans of Jesus had included founding an entirely new
church or not, this is what happens, although its birth is clouded
in obscurity. Looking at the so-called lost gospels which are later
discovered in modern Egypt, it seems that Jesus may have intended
Mary Magdalene, a disciple (and more controversially, perhaps even
his wife - the Gnostic Gospel of Philip describes her as Jesus'
'companion' - which has the same meaning), to head his movement
(either to restore the Judean church or to become the focal point
of his new church).
Mary
is supported by Jesus' brothers, most notably James, but according
to the Gnostic writings of the second or third centuries, tensions
have long existed between Peter and the male disciples on one side,
and Mary and possible female disciples on the other side. Now that
Jesus is not around to keep the peace, a power struggle apparently
ensues between them. Ultimately, the group headed by Peter wins.
Mary and James and their more inclusive church are sidelined, and
a male-dominated, hierarchical church emerges, with Peter at its
head. He is later acclaimed as the first official Bishop of Rome.
At
the same time, one of the best known legends regarding the beginnings
of the British Church is the visit paid by Joseph of Arimathea following
the death of Jesus. Joseph is only mentioned in this role for the
first time in the ninth century, in the Life of Mary Magdalene
which is attributed to Archbishop Rabanus Maurus of Mainz (766-856).
Earlier writers fail to say anything about it, so its veracity is
open to a very large degree of doubt.
According
to myth, legend, and later stories, Joseph travels west, presumably
following the ancient Phoenician trading routes to Gaul. He lands
at Messalina (Marseille) where he delivers to safety Mary Magdalene
and her infant child, the offspring of Jesus (whose descendants,
it is claimed, marry into the Merovingians and feature in the Holy
Blood and the Holy Grail and Da Vinci Code controversy).
According to William of Malmesbury in his Chronicle of the English
Kings, Joseph travels on to reach south-west Britain where later
literature claims he founds Glastonbury Abbey.
c.30
- 50? :
A
somewhat remarkable story which is usually ascribed to the reign
of Gondophares I of the Indo-Parthian kingdom is a visit by St Thomas
the Apostle. He would seem to use established trade routes to reach
India, although it would have to be north-western India for his
interaction with Gondophares. He is recruited as a carpenter to
serve at the court of the king who is named as 'Gudnaphar' in surviving
texts.
Chapters
2 and 3 of The Acts of Thomas show him embarking on a sea
voyage to India, while Chapter 17 describes his time in India. He
establishes many converts to Christianity, including members of
royal families, passes into a neighbouring kingdom, suffers martyrdom
there (at the hands of an unidentified King Mazdai), and is buried
there. His remains are later transferred to Edessa in Mesopotamia
where they are venerated.
34?
- 39 :
Herod
Antipas : Son of Herod. Puppet.
39?
- 44 :
Agrippa
I : Grandson of Herod. Puppet.
40
- 43 :
Apostle
Peter leads the first Christians in Galilee in AD 40. By the following
year, the expansion of Jerusalem continues under Agrippa l. James
leads the Jerusalem Christian community in AD 43.
Roman
Judea (Jewish Diaspora) :
AD 44 - 636 :
During the Roman period, Jewish communities around the empire grew
greatly in terms of their population figures. Cyrenaica alone (in
modern eastern Libya) soon counted twenty-five percent of its total
population as Jews.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward
Dawson, from Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities,
Flavius Josephus, from the Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance
of the Bible, Geoffrey Wigoder (Gen Ed, 1986), and from External
Link: Listverse.)
66
- 73 :
The
First Jewish Uprising against Rome leads to the destruction
of Jerusalem and the Temple (AD 70). The Roman general Titus crushes
the revolt, and many Jews are taken as captives to Rome. In AD 68,
Josephus begins his History of the Jewish War. By AD 73,
the revolt reaches its bloody conclusion at the Masada fortress
near the Dead Sea, when it is finally captured by Rome after the
defenders commit mass suicide.
132
- 135 :
Simon
bar Kochba : Leader of the Second Jewish Uprising.
132
- 135 :
The
Second Jewish Uprising is led by Simon bar Kochba against
Roman rule. He captures Jerusalem and establishes a short-lived
independent state. Roman armies under Emperor Hadrian which include
the former governor of Britain, Sextus Julius Severus, raze Jerusalem
and the emperor builds the Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina on the
site. A pagan temple dedicated to Jupiter is built on the site of
the Jewish Temple Mount itself, and the Jews are driven out of Jerusalem.
By AD 136, although Rome forbid Jews to enter Jerusalem, Christian
pilgrims are permitted entrance.
The
reasons for the uprising are unknown, but Roman treatment of the
Jews is generally suspected as being the main cause. Another reason
may be the establishment of the pagan temple and the colony of Aelia
Capitolina. This appears to be named after the Emperor Hadrian,
whose full name is Publius Aelius Hadrianus. Conversely, both these
two reasons may be the results of the revolt - punitive action taken
by Hadrian after the event.
![Hadrian inscription](Israel_HadrianInscription01_full.jpg)
The
missing half of the inscription to Hadrian was found recycled into
a floor around a cistern opening, north of the Damascus gate in
Jerusalem
The
suspicion that construction of Aelia Capitolina is begun before
the revolt is supported by an archaeological discovery in 2014.
Excavating north of the Damascus Gate, a large limestone fragment
is found that commemorates Hadrian. The other half of the fragment
had already been found in the 1800s. In its original form, the stone
slab may be part of a gateway, but at some point it is recycled
into a floor around an opening for a cistern. It is dedicated to
Hadrian in 129-130 by Legio X Fretensis and states 'To the Imperator
Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus... high priest, invested with
tribunician power for the fourteenth time, consul for the third
time, father of the country (dedicated by) the Tenth Legion Fretensis
Antoniniana'.
132/133
- ? :
Sextus
Julius Severus : Former Governor of Britain.
170
:
The
centre of Jewish life moves to Galilee. Rabbi Judah HaNasi presides
over a reconstituted Sanhedrin, or high court.
305
:
Palestine
falls under the jurisdiction of Eastern Roman empire.
Islamic
Palestine (Jewish Diaspora) :
AD 636 - 1810
638
:
Jerusalem
falls to the Islamic empire.
674
- 677 :
The
capital of the Islamic empire moves to Damascus and an Arab aristocratic
government is established there. Syria is divided into four districts:
Damascus, Homs, Jordan, and Palestine.
691
:
In the same year as Iraq is brought fully back under Umayyad control,
the Dome of the Rock is completed in Jerusalem, on the site of the
former Jewish Second Temple (destroyed during the Roman siege of
Jerusalem in AD 70). It survives to this day, making it the oldest
existing Islamic building in the world, and probably the holiest.
![The Dome of the Rock](Umayyads_DomeRock01_full.jpg)
The
Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem
751
:
As
his reward for the successful Abbasid conquest of Fustat in Egypt,
Saleh ibn Ali ibn Abdullah is made wali of Palestine.
751
- 753 :
Saleh
ibn Ali ibn Abdullah : Wali of Egypt (750, 753-755) &
Syria (753).
754
:
al-Hakam
ibn Da'ban : Defeated by Saleh.
754
- 755 :
Saleh
ibn Ali ibn Abdullah, wali of Egypt, is the uncle of Abbasid Caliph
Abdullah as Saffah, but the caliph dies in 754. Saleh's brother,
Abdallah, launches a revolt in Syria against the new caliph, claiming
that he himself is the rightful successor. Saleh refuses to join
his brother's revolt. Instead he enters Syria to help suppress it,
defeating Abdallah's governor of Palestine, al-Hakam ibn Da'ban.
Abdallah is also defeated and is forced to submit to the new caliph.
877
- 878 :
Abbasid troops are sent against Ahmed ibn-Tuluh, governor of Egypt,
because he has failed to send enough tribute to Baghdad. Defeating
them, the following year he invades and captures Palestine and Syria.
905
:
The Tulunids in Egypt are weakened by this stage following years
of mismanagement of the country. Egypt is invaded and Wali Shayban
retreats to Fustat where he surrenders on 10 January 905. The Tulunid
dynasty of governors and semi-independent rulers is ended and loyal
and obedient Abbasid governors are installed.
909
:
Thanks to the murder of the Aghlabid ruler of Ifriqiyya, Abdullah,
and Ziyadat's massacring of his brothers and uncles, the Aghlabids
have lost all prestige in the eyes of the people. Ifriqiyya is conquered
by the Fatimids, who quickly also conquer Morocco, Syria, Algeria,
and Arabia. Ziyadat escapes, but dies in Palestine while failing
to secure support to recapture his territory.
933
- 935 :
Abbasid control of Egypt proves to be short-lived when the country
falls under the control of the Mameluke dynasty of Turkic governors
who are allowed to rule in a semi-independent manner. From 935,
under the Turkic slave soldier, Muhammad ibn Tughj al Ikhshid, Egypt
also gains control of Palestine and Syria.
fl
1028 :
Anushtegin
ad-Dizbari : Also Anushtakin al-Duzbari. Governor of Palestine
& Syria.
1028
- 1029 :
The Arab rebellion in Syria is crushed by the newly-appointed Fatamid
Turkic governor of Syria and Palestine, Anushtegin ad-Dizbari, with
victory coming in 1029. The success gives the new governor control
of Syria, which is not something that pleases his Fatamid masters.
However, his authority and leadership is welcomed by the people
of Damascus itself, who are probably relieved to find some stability
after several years of uncertainty.
1041
:
Anushtegin ad-Dizbari is exiled to Aleppo where he dies, giving
his Fatamid masters revenge for his success of 1029.
fl
1072 :
Badr
al-Jamali : Former governor of Syria. First Fatamid military
vizier.
1072
:
Desperate to resolve the ongoing situation in Cairo, Caliph al Mustansir
recalls General Badr al-Jamali. He successfully puts down the various
rebel factions, clearing out much of the Turkic presence at the
same time. However, the caliphate has been seriously weakened by
the revolt. Badr al-Jamali becomes the first military vizier of
the caliphate (along much the same lines as the magistri militum
of the late Western Roman empire, and they dominate the caliphate
in much the same way as the late Roman emperors had been dominated).
The military viziers become the heads of state in Egypt in all but
name, with the the caliph reduced to the role of figurehead.
1071
- 1099 :
Jerusalem
is conquered by the Seljuq Turks.
1096
- 1244 :
Nicĉa in western Anatolia is the first Islamic town to fall to the
Crusaders, who cross the Bosphorus alongside the forces of the Byzantine
Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. The Christian soldiers briefly besiege
the town before it falls. Islam is divided and in conflict with
itself, and neither the ruling Seljuq Turks or the more local Seljuqs
of Rum who actually control Nicĉa are in any position to offer immediate
retaliation. The county of Edessa is created in 1098, and Jerusalem
is captured in 1099.
This
event triggers a large-scale migration of Jews from territories
in Western Europe into Poland. They are welcomed by the tolerant
King Wladyslaw, being allowed to settle without any restrictions.
This migration forms the beginnings of what will become the nineteenth
century's 'Pale of Settlement', which is when the descendents of
the same Jewish settlers beginning to migrate away from Congress
Poland, from 1881.
1228
- 1229 :
The
Fifth Crusade hits the region and Jerusalem is ceded to the Christians
at Acre while the Ayyubids squabble amongst themselves. For allowing
Jerusalem to fall into Christian hands, al Kamil I (Nasir ad Din)
of Egypt is vilified by many Muslims, but it brings peace with the
Crusaders.
From
the moment of his accession in 1227, al Nasir II of Damascus has
faced opposition from his uncle, al Kamil I. The latter attacks
him, taking Jerusalem (before handing it over to the Christians)
and Nablus. Appealing to another uncle, al Ashraf, the ruler of
Harran, al Nasir is betrayed when both uncles team up. Damascus
is besieged between late 1228 and June 1229, when it falls. As agreed,
al Kamil takes Palestine and al Ashraf gains Damascus and the north,
acknowledging his brother as overlord. Al Nasir is compensated with
the emirate of Kerak in the Transjordan.
1240
:
As Salih II Ismail of Damascus is quickly reconciled with an Nasir
Dawud after the latter has fallen out with Ayyub. Together they
decide to curtail Ayyub's ambition to conquer further Ayyubid territories.
In July, Ismail reaches an agreement with Jerusalem so that the
Crusaders will protect southern Palestine from Ayyub's possible
attacks. The price is high, though, as he is forced to cede all
of the land west of the Jordan (won by Saladin in 1187), including
Gaza, Jerusalem, and Nablus, along with his own fortresses at Hunin,
Safad, and Tiberias. He is denounced throughout the Arab world for
his actions.
1244
:
Judah
is ruled by the Abuyyids.
1370
:
The
new elective kingship in Poland governs a state which encourages
relative liberalism within its borders. The state has already ensured
a stable period of religious tolerism and social autonomy which
has encouraged the settlement within the kingdom of a sizable Jewish
population. This increases along with the kingdom's borders, especially
during the Poland-Lithuania commonwealth period. Poland becomes
the European centre of Jewish culture, while England and Spain are
expelling their own Jews (in 1290 and 1492 respectively).
1492
:
The Jews are expelled from Spain. Looking for new places to settle,
some Jewish communities return to Palestine. During the course of
the subsequent century they put down roots in the major cities in
the region including Jerusalem.
1505
:
The
Polish constitution of 31 May - the Nihil novi - eliminates
royal legislative powers. The king is no longer allowed to issue
laws which regard matters that are not directly related to the king's
interests, his estates, or his own servants or staff (plus the country's
Jewish population), without the approval and agreement of the nobility
who are to be represented through two legislative chambers.
1518
:
Ottoman Sultan Selim I is impressed with Djanbirdi al-Ghazali and
his loyalty to his former Mameluke masters until they bore no true
authority during the Ottoman invasion. The former viceroy of Hama
is made governor of the province of Damascus which includes a great
deal of the Levant between central Syria and Palestine and Transjordan.
His first act is to subdue the Turkic nomads in the region so that
the pilgrim caravan can travel safely to Mecca.
c.1563?
- 1570? :
Kara
Şahin Mustafa Pasha : Ridwan dynasty founder. Former
governor of Egypt.
1570
- 1573 :
Ridwan
Pasha : Son.
1585
- 1605 :
Ahmad
Pasha I : Son of Ridwan Pasha.
1605
- 1644 :
'Arab
Hasan Pasha : Son.
1644
- 1661 :
Husayn
Pasha : Son.
1660
- 1661 :
Ibrahim
Pasha : Son. Died on a military expedition.
1661
- 1663 :
Husayn
Pasha : Second term of office. Deposed and executed by
Musa Pasha.
1663
- 1679 :
Musa
Pasha : Brother. Stood down his post.
1679
- 1690 :
Ahmad
Pasha II : Son. Last of the Ridwans in Gaza.
1697
:
Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid leads a large group of about 1,500 Jews into
Jerusalem, swelling the existing population there.
1791
:
Imperial Russia begins operating an area known as the Pale of Settlement.
Initially this is small, but it increases greatly from 1793 and
the Second Partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
By the mid-nineteenth century it incorporates modern Belarus (eastern
Poland at the time), eastern Latvia, Lithuania, the province of
Bessarabia (modern Moldova), and western Ukraine. Having formerly
been citizens of the defunct commonwealth, the Jewish population
of the 'Pale' is restricted from moving eastwards into Russia proper.
Mütesarrifs
of Jerusalem :
AD 1810 - 1917 :
The mütesarrifs were the lieutenant-governors of Jerusalem during
the Ottoman empire period of rule in the region. Overall governance
of modern Israel, Lebanon, and Syria was initially handled by the
wali of Damascus, with the mütesarrifs acting as sub-commanders
in various regions. Jerusalem's territory covered southern and central
Palestine and included the cities of Beersheba, Bethlehem, Gaza,
Hebron, and Jaffa.
The mütesarrif of Jerusalem was not generally resident in Jerusalem.
They preferred nearby Ramla for this, a city founded between 705-715
by the Umayyad caliphs, probably Sulayman (the city today is inside
the borders of Israel). This is perhaps not surprising, as Jerusalem
(and the Holy Land in general) had declined to a backward state.
The land outside the city was largely deserted and poor, with banditry
a common problem. Plagues were an even more common problem, sometimes
taking a heavy toll in lives. Cities and towns other than Jerusalem
and Gaza dwindled, and entire villages in the largely rural economy
were abandoned.
(Information by Peter Kessler.)
1810
:
Kanj
Ahmad Agha
1814
:
Abdul
Karim Agha
1820
:
Hakimoglu
Mustafa Agha
1821
:
Sülayman
Afand
1821
:
Ali
Afand
1821
:
Muhammad
Sa'd : Acting mütesarrif.
1824/25
:
Ismail
Bey
1825/27
:
Uthman
Agha
1826
- 1827 :
Abdul
Ibrahim Agha
1827
:
Ismail
Afand
1827
:
Safi
Muhammad Agha
1827
- 1831 :
Abdullah
Pasha : Governor of Gaza and Jaffa (1818-1821).
1829
:
Mustafa
Afand : Mütesarrif.
1829
- 1831 :
Abdul
Ibrahim Agha : Mütesarrif.
1830
- 1834 :
Hüseyin III has attempted to placate the Europeans in their interest
in Algiers by ensuring that the Jewish population enjoys religious
freedom and some hostages are released. It does him little lasting
good, however. France invades Algeria and conquers it in progressive
stages between 1830-1834.
1831
- 1840 :
Husaum
`Abd al-Hadi : Governor-general.
1831
:
Sheykh
Said al Mustafa : Mütesarrif.
1831/32
:
Yahya
Bey : Mütesarrif.
1832
:
Muhammad
Sa'ad Agha : Mütesarrif. Ousted by an Arab revolt.
1832
:
Qasim al-Ahmad seizes Jerusalem after leading his forces from Nablus
during an Arab revolt in Palestine. Less than a month later, Jerusalem
is captured along with Damascus by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt (between
May and June) on behalf of Muhammad Ali Pasha. They are annexed
to Egypt and Jerusalem subsequently operates on an autonomous basis.
The Ottomans retain only nominal suzerainty. The relative freedom
in the city now allows the first foreign consulates to be founded,
and four Jewish synagogues are given permission to be renovated
soon afterwards (in 1836).
![Ramla](Israel_Ramla01_full.jpg)
Despite
being the favoured residence of the mütesarrifs, Ramla was not especially
well-developed in the nineteenth century outside the residence itself
1832
:
Qasim
al-Ahmad : Captured Jerusalem during the Arab revolt.
1833
:
Muhammad
al-Qasim bin Qasim al-Ahmad : Son.
1833
:
Yusuf
al Qasim bin Qasim al-Ahmad : Brother.
1834/35
:
Jabr
Abu Ghosh
1836/37
:
Mustafa
Agha al Sa'ad
1838
:
Muhammad
Ali Agha al Dizdr
1838
- 1840 :
The position of governor of Damascus falls vacant again, and on
10 October 1840 the Ottoman empire regains direct authority over
the city and its territory, including Jerusalem. Despite this, increasing
numbers of Jews begin to drift back to Jerusalem, and they become
the subject of international political interest and support.
1838
- 1839 :
Ahmad
Agha al-Asal al Dizdr
1841
- 1842? :
Mehmed
Tayyar Pasha
1843?
- 1843 :
Reshid
Pasha : In office until Dec.
1843
- 1844? :
Haider
Pasha
1845?
:
As'ad
Pasha
1845
- 1847 :
Mehmed
Pasha Kibrizli
1847
- 1848? :
Mustafa
Zarif
1847
- 1849 :
Bahri
Pasha
1849
- 1851 :
Adham
Pasha
1850
:
The district of East Jerusalem outside the Old City walls is only
able to begin to appear after 1850 when the Ottoman authorities
allow structures to be built within 850 metres of the walls. Construction
is not begun immediately, however, and probably takes more than
a decade to become appreciable.
1851
- 1853 :
Hafiz
Ahmed Pasha
1853
- 1854 :
Rashid
Pasha
1854
:
Yakub
Pasha Osmanoglu : Between Mar-Oct.
1855
- 1857? :
Kiamil
Pasha
1857
- 1864 :
Surayya
Pasha
1860
:
Jerusalem has become an intensely crowded city within its old walls.
Sir Moses Montefiore, an Anglo-Italian philanthropist in the Holy
Land, builds an almshouse in what becomes the Mishkenot Sha'ananim
district, and settlement outside the walls begins. The migration
out of the Old City is slow at first, with many scared of bandit
raids against the undefended suburb. A gate built around it which
is locked at night assuages some of the fear, while payments smooth
the way for the rest.
![Damascus Gate in 1860](Israel_DamascusGate01_full.jpg)
This
view of the Damascus Gate in 1860 shows that Jerusalem was still
confined behind the Old City walls, afraid to develop outside due
to the high levels of banditry
1864
:
Mehmed
Hurshid Pasha
1864
- 1867 :
Izzet
Pasha
1867
- 1869 :
Nazif
Pasha
1869
- 1871 :
Mehmed
Kamil Pasha
1869
:
Two more suburbs outside the Old City are started. Mahane Israel
comes first, built by Jews from the Mahgreb in Africa. Nahalat is
next, built by a cooperative of Jewish families in the Old City.
The fear of banditry has been replaced by now with a spirit of building
new and better neighbourhoods in a rapidly expanding Jerusalem.
1871
- 1872 :
Ali
Bey
1872
- 1873 :
Nazif
Pasha : Second term of office.
1873
- 1874/75 :
Mehmed
Kamil Pasha : Second term of office. Died 1879.
1874/75
- 1876 :
Ali
Bey : Second term of office.
1876
- 1877 :
Faik
Bey
1877
- 1889 :
Rauf
Pasha
1881
:
The first modern-era wave of Jewish migrations back to the Holy
Land begins with an event known as the First Aliyah. The Jews are
fleeing pogroms in Eastern Europe, most notably in the territories
of the Russian empire under Alexander III and his imposition of
anti-liberalisation reforms.
For
the past century Russia has been operating an area known as the
Pale of Settlement, largely territory to the west which has been
acquired from the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Today this
forms Russia's western border region, and from 1791-1793 it has
incorporated modern Belarus (eastern Poland at the time), eastern
Latvia, Lithuania, the province of Bessarabia (modern Moldova),
and western Ukraine. The Jewish population of the 'Pale' are restricted
from moving eastwards into Russia proper and are now being discouraged
from remaining in the western border regions of the empire.
1890
- 1897 :
Ibrahim
Hakki Pasha
1897
:
The question of a Jewish homeland is gaining international recognition,
helped on by the founding of a political form of Zionism and the
first meeting of the World Zionist Congress in this year, held in
Basel in Switzerland. The impression of the mütesarrifate of Jerusalem
as an emerging country in its own right begins to grow in the mind
of educated Arabs in the region.
1897
- 1901 :
Tevfik
Bey
1901
- 1902 :
Mehmed
Çevad Pasha
1902
- 1904 :
Osman
Kazim Bey
1903
- 1914 :
The
Second Aliyah to Palestine is triggered in 1903 by an anti-Jewish
riot in the city of Kishinev (modern Chişinău), the capital
of the province of Bessarabia (modern Moldova), part of the Russian
empire. Something like 40,000 Jews settle in Palestine, although
only half remain permanently. Many others, evicted from their settlements
in the 'Pale' head towards western Poland or America (something
that is dramatically highlighted, if with a touch of artistic licence,
in the film musical, Fiddler on the Roof, 1971. which has
its final scenes set in 1905).
![Second Aliyah to Palestine](Modern_SecondAliyah01_full.jpg)
Poland-Lithuania's
long-standing Jewish population was gradually forced to emigrate
during the later Russian empire period, with most either going west
or returning to Palestine
1904
- 1906 :
Ahmed
Reshid Pasha
1906
- 1908 :
Ali
Ekrem Bey
1908
- 1909 :
Subhi
Bey
1909
- 1910 :
Nazim
Bey
1910
- 1911 :
Azmi
Bey
1911
- 1912 :
Çevdet
Bey
1912
- 1913 :
Tahir
Hayreddin Bey
1913
- 1915 :
Ahmed
Macid Pasha
1915
:
The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by Jamal Pasha,
wali of Damascus, is intended to put an end to local opposition
to the 1908 Ottoman programme of Turkicisation in the region. Instead
it has the opposite effect, raising tensions and nationalistic feeling
against the Turks.
![Arab Revolt](Arabia_Revolt1916_02_full.jpg)
With
the Ottoman empire fading in power and prestige, the time was ripe
for the Arab Revolt, led by the Hashemites and TE Lawrence
1916
- 1917 :
Midhad
Bey
1916
- 1917 :
Palestine, the ancient land of the Philistines, is taken by the
British from the crumbling Ottomans, and in 1917 the the British
Parliament's 'Balfour Declaration' gives backing for 'a national
home for Jewish people' in Palestine.
British
Governors of Palestine :
AD 1917 - 1948 :
Palestine emerged from four hundred years of Ottoman rule during
the First World War, when the Arab Uprising, led by Faysal, son
of the sharif of Mecca and British Army officer T E Lawrence combined
with a British military thrust from Arabia under General Allenby
to dislodge the Ottoman forces. The British numbers were swelled
by five battalions of Jewish volunteers who formed the Jewish Legion
(which saw action in the Jordan Valley in 1918). In 1917, the British
Parliament's 'Balfour Declaration' - announced by Foreign Secretary
Arthur Balfour - gave backing for 'a national home for Jewish people'
in Palestine. More recently, extremist opinion has decried what
it sees as Britain's pro-Arab stance of the time, while the Arabs
themselves see it as 'a fateful promise from those who do not own
to those who do not deserve', according to Palestinian President
Mahmoud Abbas in 2016.
Once
the chaos of war had settled down, mandates were granted to Britain
and France, the two main victors of the First World War. They were
to administer the captured territories in the Near East, until some
form of independent control could be established. The situation
at the end of the war was very unstable, with a serious risk of
the region descending into factional fighting and further chaos,
so the mandates served a very real purpose despite their later controversy.
The British mandate covered modern Jordan, Israel, and Palestine,
while the French mandate covered Syria and Lebanon. Eventually,
the modern nations of the Near East were established and Britain
and France were able to withdraw.
(Information
by Peter Kessler.)
1917
- 1918 :
Sir
Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby : First British military administrator,
Dec-Jun.
1918
- 1919 :
Sir
Arthur Wigram Money : From Jun-Jun.
1919
:
H
Watson : Acting administrator, Jun-Dec.
1919
- 1920 :
Sir
Louis Jean Bols : From Dec-Jul.
1920
:
On Palestine's northern border, Faysal becomes ruler of the United
Kingdom of Syria on 7 March 1920. However, the San Remo conference
of April gives the mandate for Syria to France and the French immediately
move to end Faysal's Arabic government. Faysal also refuses to recognise
the legitimacy of the newly created sate of Lebanon, which takes
a large slice of Greater Syria's coastal territory. Eventually,
Faysal is exiled.
![Nabi Musa festival](Palestine_Festival01_full.jpg)
The
Nabi Musa festival of 1920 prompted riots in Palestine between the
majority Arabs and the minority, but rapidly burgeoning, Jewish
population
In
Palestine itself, increasing Jewish migration and settlement into
the region is stirring concern amongst Arab groups. During the Muslim
Nabi Musa festival, speeches by Arab religious leaders lead to several
attacks on Jews. There is fighting on both sides (the Nabi Musa
Riots, or Palestine Riots), leading to nine deaths and dozens of
injuries, and former members of the Jewish Legion defend their communities.
Jewish concern that the British military are not taking the situation
seriously enough leads them to create their own 'shadow' administration
and a security force called the Haganah.
1920
- 1925 :
Sir
Herbert Louis Samuel : First British High Commissioner,
Jul-Jun.
1920
- 1923 :
Although it begins in December 1919, the Third Aliyah really picks
up in 1920, and results in a fresh wave of 40,000 Jews entering
Palestine. The trigger for this migration is the October Revolution
in Russia, although the fact that the British rather than the Ottomans
are now in control of Palestine makes it a much more enticing prospect
than previously. In 1922, Britain assumes official governance of
Palestine under the terms of its League of Nations mandate. The
following year, Transjordan is separated from Palestine.
1924
- 1929 :
The Fourth Aliyah follows on from the Third, delivering approximately
100,000 Jews into Palestine, mostly from Lithuania, Poland (up to
half of them), Rumania, and Russia. Jewish communities undergo rapid
development, especially in Tel Aviv, but economic crisis between
1926-1927 causes great hardship, forcing around 23,000 Jews to leave
again.
1925
- 1928 :
Herbert
Charles Onslow Plumer : Aug-Jul.
1928
:
Sir
Harry Charles Luke : Acting high commissioner, Jul-Dec.
1928
- 1931 :
Sir
John Robert Chancellor : Dec-Nov.
1929
- 1939 :
The Western Wall Uprising of 1929 results from a Judo-Arab
dispute about access to the Western Wall. Arabs kill 133 Jews, British
police kill 110 Arabs, and a handful of Arabs are killed by Jews.
The blame for the violence is laid largely at the door of the Arabs,
who are feeling increasing social pressure due to the rapid increase
of Jewish immigrants into the region. As if to highlight this, the
beginning of the Fifth Aliyah follows immediately afterwards, triggered
by the rise of Nazism in Germany and the threat of war.
1931
:
Mark
Aitchison Young : Acting high commissioner, Nov-Nov.
1931
- 1938 :
Sir
Arthur Grenfell Wauchope : Nov-Mar.
1937
:
Sir
William Denis Battershill : Acting high commissioner for
Sir Arthur, Sep-Nov.
1937
:
On 7 July the British 'Peel Commission' recommends partitioning
Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. Emir Abdullah of
Transjordan supports this as it means the Arab section will be incorporated
into his territory. While the Jews accept the commission's findings
reluctantly, the other Arabs nations do not, and it is eventually
dropped.
1938
- 1944 :
Sir
Harold Alfred MacMichael : Mar-Aug.
1944
- 1945 :
John
S Surtees Prendergast Vereker : Nov-Nov.
1945
- 1948 :
Sir
Alan Gordon Cunningham : Nov-May. Final high commissioner.
1946
:
Following
the conclusion of the Second World War, in which Jordan has
remained a staunch ally of Britain, the British mandate for Transjordan
comes to an end. The emirate's independence is announced on 25 May,
as the 'Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan' on Palestine's eastern
border.
1948
:
The
British mandate in Palestine comes to an end on 14 May. Before withdrawal
of the remaining British forces can even start, the declaration
of the state of Israel takes place on the same day.
Modern
Israel & Palestine :
AD 1948 - Present Day
Israel and Palestine are irrevocably linked in terms of modern history,
as the former was carved out of a large proportion of the latter
in 1948. The modern state of Israel is situated on the eastern coast
of the Mediterranean, and is neighboured by Lebanon to the north,
Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east while also encompassing
the West Bank on three sides (the core of any future Palestinian
state), Egypt to the south, and the Palestinian Gaza Strip to the
south-west, along the Mediterranean coastline. The West Bank and
Gaza Strip are all that remains of Palestine.
With
general support from Britain and the USA, on 29 November 1947 the
United Nations adopted a resolution to partition Palestine into
two states, one Jewish and one Arab. British troops staunchly maintained
their peacekeeping role until 1948, despite extreme provocation
from militant Jewish groups who were intent on hurrying things along.
As soon as the British ended their mandate duties on 14 May 1948,
on the very same day leading Jewish figure David Ben-Gurion declared
the establishment of a Jewish state.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Allan Rousso, and
from External Links: Israeli air strikes kill at least 33
in Gaza Strip (The Guardian), and Israeli progressives on apartheid
(The Guardian), and Israeli coalition ousts Netanyahu (The Guardian).)
1948
:
David
Ben-Gurion : First of the three chairmen of the Provisional
State Council.
1948
- 1949 :
Chaim
Weizmann : Chairman May-Feb, but arrived in Israel on 20
Sep 1948.
1948
:
Yosef
Sprinzak : Acting chairman for Weizmann until his arrival.
1948
- 1949 :
David Ben-Gurion makes his proclamation of the creation of the state
of Israel on 14 May 1948, the last day of the British mandate. British
troops are already pulling out, aware that the region is about to
erupt into violence. On the following day the neighbouring Arab
states of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria attack Israel,
prompting the start of the Arab-Israeli War. Saudi Arabia
sends its own military contingent to support the Egyptians. The
war lasts for a year before a ceasefire is agreed. The Green Line
is established - temporary borders which can be generally agreed
by all sides. Egypt gains the Gaza Strip while Jordan controls East
Jerusalem and the West Bank region, but an estimated 700,000 Palestinians
have been expelled or have fled their homeland, mostly to enter
southern Lebanon or Jordan.
![David Ben-Gurion and Harry Truman](Israel_Ben-Gurion01_full.jpg)
David
Ben-Gurion (right), Israel's first chairman of the Provisional State
Council in 1948 and its first prime minister chats to US President
Harry Truman (left) and Abba Eban
1948
- 1949 :
On 17 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion becomes the state of Israel's first
prime minister. In the following year, on 17 February 1949, Chaim
Weizmann is elected as the state's first president. Israel proclaims
Jerusalem as its capital on 13 December 1949 (which is put into
force on 23 January 1950), but most foreign embassies remain in
Tel Aviv.
1956
- 1957 :
Israel occupies the Sinai peninsula as part of its efforts against
Egypt in the Suez Crisis. While its objectives are achieved as part
of an agreement with France and Britain, Israel is pressured into
withdrawing by the United Nations and even more especially by the
USA, which fails to support any of its allies in this affair. UN
peacekeepers are positioned in the Sinai to act as a buffer between
Israel and Egypt.
1964
:
Displaced Arab Palestinians create various resistance groups, the
most important of which is the Palestinian Liberation Organisation
(PLO), which is committed to restoring the former Palestine. Its
most famous chairman is Yasser Arafat (1969-2004), who is succeeded
by Mahmoud Abbas.
1967
:
Amid
ever-increasing tensions and acrimonious relations with Israel,
Egypt expels the UN peacekeepers from the Sinai and announces a
partial blockade of Israel's access to the Red Sea. Expecting further
military action, several Arab states begin to mobilise their troops.
Israel sees this as reason enough to launch a pre-emptive attack
against Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, and Syria, triggering the Six Day
War. Jordan loses the West Bank and East Jerusalem, a third
of the kingdom, while Israel also gains the Golan Heights and the
ancient region of Bashan from Syria, and the Gaza Strip from Egypt,
and also temporarily occupies the Sinai peninsula for a second time.
However, the state suffers heavy losses during the short campaign,
and public anger forces the prime minister to resign.
1973
- 1975 :
The
Yom Kippur War (alternatively known as the Arab-Israeli
War of 1973) sees the combined forces of Egypt and Syria simultaneously
attack Israel during its highest holiday. Jordan does not actively
participate in the conflict as it is still licking the wounds suffered
in 1967. The Syrian army is held and repulsed by the Israelis while
the Egyptian armies take longer to pin back. The war ends in an
imposed ceasefire, supported by the USA (backers of the Israelis)
and Soviet Russia (supporting the Arab forces) as tension rises
between the two superpowers.
The
war results in the Oil Crisis of 1973-1975. This grips the industrialised
world when the Arab oil producers, including Saudi Arabia, put pressure
on the USA to withdraw its support of Israel by withholding oil
supplies. The attempt eventually fails.
1976
:
The
'Raid on Entebbe' takes place on 1July 1976 when Israeli commandos
daringly rescue 102 hostages who are being held by PLO guerrillas
at Uganda's Entebbe International Airport.
1980
:
The
Israeli parliament passes an act entitled The Basic Law: Jerusalem,
the Capital of Israel, otherwise known as the Jerusalem Law.
It seems to suggest that Israelis can settle the occupied West Bank
at will, and some political commentators certainly take it that
way.
1993
:
Under
Yasser Arafat, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation recognises
Israel's right to exist in peace and rejects terrorism, in return
for which Israel officially recognises the PLO as the official representative
of the Palestinians still in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Displaced
Palestinians have already recognised Israel's existence in 1988.
![Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat](Israel_YitzhakRabin01_full.jpg)
The
famous handshake between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (left)
and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat (right) in 1993, overseen by US President
Bill Clinton, seemed to presage a new beginning in Palestine, but
Rabin's assassination in 1995 soured matters
1996
:
Two
years after for formation of the Palestinian Authority, the semi-autonomous
state of Palestine is set up by a joint Israeli/Palestinian/US deal.
1999
:
Persecution of the Falasha in Ethiopia has steadily increased, so
Israel begins covert airlifts of Falasha populations, taking them
back to their homeland. Despite attempts by the Ethiopian government
to put a halt to this, the airlift is completed by 1999 with all
of the Falashas being removed to Israel.
2006
:
With Lebanon more stable than at any time in a generation, Israel
launches a military attack on 12 July, which lasts for a month and
seriously damages the country. The Second Lebanon War is
caused primarily by Palestinian militants firing rockets at Israeli
targets from inside Lebanon, but the war is a military and political
disaster for Israel.
2008
:
Towards the end of the year, Israel enters into the Gaza War
after a ceasefire between it and the militant Palestinian group
Hamas collapses. The fighting last for three weeks and leaves the
Gaza Strip devastated. Israel announces a unilateral ceasefire,
while Hamas announces a ceasefire of its own, opening the border
crossings and withdrawing.
2021
:
A week of heavy bombardment of Gaza by Israel takes place, but with
the unusual circumstance of opposing Hamas rockets being longer-range
and more penetrative than previously, at least when they can get
past the Israeli air and rocket defences. The conflict is triggered
by Israeli attempts to forcibly evict Palestinians from their own
homes in East Jerusalem so that Israelis can be settled there, along
with aggressive Israeli police clashes near the al-Aqsa mosque during
the Palestinian holy month of Ramadan.
Just
a month later, in June, long-term right-wing prime minister, Benjamin
Netanyahu, is officially ousted by a coalition of eight political
parties. This opposition, which has united specifically to remove
Netanyahu, includes a centrist former TV anchor, a far-right foe
of Netanyahu's, and even a small Arab Islamist party of Palestinian
citizens of Israel, the first time an Arab minority party has formed
part of any Israeli government.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/
CanaanIsraelites.htm