KARMANA
/ CARMANIA
Incorporating
the Carmanians, Germanioi, Karmana, & Karmanioi :
The
ancient province of Carmania in Central Asia lay largely within
the modern province of Kerman in central-eastern Iran. Prior to
its late sixth century BC domination by the Achaemenid Persians,
Carmania seems to have formed part of a much larger and more poorly-defined
region known as Ariana, of which the later province of Aria was
the heartland. Barely recorded by written history, its precise boundaries
are impossible to pin down. It may have encompassed much or all
of Transoxiana - the region around the River Oxus (the Amu Darya)
- and could have reached as far south as the coastline of the Arabian
Sea.
FeatureCarmania
was bordered by the province of Persis to the west (the core territory
of the early Parsua), Parthia to the north, Drangiana to the north-east,
Gedrosia to the south-east, and the Persian Gulf to the south. The
region was also the heartland of the rather mysterious Jiroft culture.
This was seemingly a long-lived culture with a vast network of societies
which formed some of the world's first cities (see feature link,
right). The north of Carmania was (and still is) a poor region,
dominated as it is by the Dasht-e Lut, the 'Desert of Emptiness'.
The south on the other hand remains a rich and fertile zone that
can produce harvests in abundance, as well as containing gold and
silver mines along the River Hyctanis or Hytanis.
Much
later than the Jiroft culture, Indo-Iranian tribes had been migrating
westwards from Transoxiana since the seventeenth century BC or thereabouts,
following the collapse of the indigenous Bactria-Margiana Archaeological
Complex, or Oxus Civilisation. The early trickle became a flood
in the twelfth to tenth centuries BC, and these new arrivals soon
created the (supposed) Median empire and then the Persian empire,
both of which incorporated Carmania within their initial eastern
borders.
The
people who gave this region its new name to replace whatever it
had been called by the people of the Jiroft were the Carmanians
or Karmana themselves. More probably, in Old Persian this name was
something close to the Karmana used to denote the later satrapy.
Noted by Herodotus as the Germanioi, they can be equated with the
Karmanioi who were mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium. They were
viewed as an extension of Persis itself and were counted as one
of the ten 'clans' (gene) of the Parsua. With the Sagartioi residing
in Drangiana, the Karmana here, and the remaining Parsua in Persis,
a clear migratory path into Iran can be discerned.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus: Books
11-12, Volume 1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John Yardley, & Waldemar
Heckel, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), and from External Links: the Ancient
History Encyclopaedia (dead link), and Zoroastrian Heritage, K E
Eduljee, and Talessman's Atlas (World History Maps).)
c.1000
- 900 BC :
The Parsua begin to enter Iran, probably by crossing the Iranian
plateau to the north of the great central deserts (through Hyrcania)
but also by working round to the south of them. Already separated
during their journey, Parsua groups head in two main directions.
In time the northern groups find themselves in the Zagros Mountains
alongside their cousins, the Mannaeans and Medians. They are attested
there during the ninth and eighth centuries BC but disappear afterwards.
The southern groups, perhaps more numerous, trickle in through Drangiana
and Carmania, towards southern Iran where they begin to settle.
![Map of Central Asia & India c.700 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-700BC_full.jpg)
Following
the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations
and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC,
Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions
- Tūr (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming
the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering
India (green)
Located
in the Fārs region of Iran, these Parsua come under the overlordship
of their once-powerful western neighbour, the kingdom of Elam. In
the later stages of Parsua settlement, Assyria and Media also claim
some control over the region. As Elam's influence weakens, the Parsua
begin to assert their own authority in the region, although they
remain subjugated by more powerful neighbours for quite some time.
c.620 BC :
The Medians (possibly) take control of the Parsua from the weakening
Assyrians who themselves had only recently taken control of the
region from Elam. According to Herodotus, Media governs all of the
tribes of the Iranian steppe. This sudden empire may well include
territory to the east which covers Hyrcania, Parthia, Drangiana,
and Carmania.
c.546
- 540 BC :
The defeat of the Medes opens the floodgates for Cyrus the Great
with a wave of conquests, beginning in the west from 549 BC but
focussing towards the east of the Persians from about 546 BC. Eastern
Iran falls during a more drawn-out campaign between about 546-540
BC, which may be when Maka is taken (presumed to be the southern
coastal strip of the Arabian Sea).
![Iran's Makran Coast](Iran_MakranCoast01_full.jpg)
Modern
Iran's Makran Coast formed the southern edge of the ancient province
of Gedrosia, on what is now the border with south-western Pakistan
Further
eastern regions now fall, namely Arachosia, Aria, Bactria, Carmania,
Chorasmia, Drangiana, Gandhara, Gedrosia, Hyrcania, Margiana, Parthia,
Saka (at least part of the broad tribal lands of the Sakas), Sogdiana
(with Ferghana), and Thatagush - all added to the empire, although
records for these campaigns are characteristically sparse.
Persian
Satraps of Karmana (Carmania) :
Conquered by Cyrus the Great, the region of Carmania was added to
the Persian empire. Before that it was the south-easternmost part
of the Median empire. Under the Persians it was formed into a unit
of the larger official satrapy or province known as the central
main satrapy of Pārsa/Persis which incorporated Persis and
Ūja. This is presumed to have comprised the central minor satrapy
of Persis which lay at the heart of the empire and the minor satrapy
of Karmana. The latter must have been of inferior rank, since it
is not mentioned in the dahyāva lists. Instead its general
administration may have been handled from Persis. Carmania's lowly
status is confirmed for the time of Alexander the Great, when the
post in Carmania represented only a first step in the impressive
career of Sibyrtius and was therefore of modest rank.
These eastern regions of the new-found empire were ancestral homelands
for the Persians. They formed the Indo-Iranian melting pot from
which the Parsua had migrated west in the first place to reach Persis.
There would have been no language barriers for Cyrus' forces and
few cultural differences. Although details of his conquests are
relatively poor, he seemingly experienced few problems in uniting
the various tribes under his governance. He was the first to exert
any form of imperial control here, although his campaign may have
been driven partially by a desire to recreate the semi-mythical
kingdom of Turan in the land of Tūr, but now under Persian
control. Curiously the Persians had little knowledge of what lay
to the north of their eastern empire, with the result that Alexander
the Great was less well-informed about the region than earlier Ionian
settlers on the Black Sea coast had been.
The satrapy comprised roughly the area of the modern provinces of
Kermān and Lorestān in Iran. The capital is likely to
have been on the site of modern Kermān. In Alexander's time,
further governors who were presumably of a lower rank are mentioned
for the province's southern section - which may correspond to Yutiyā
in the Behistun inscription - and for the island of Oaracta / Qešm.
In the west the province bordered Persis. Parthawa lay to the north,
with Zranka and Gedrosia to the east. The frontier must have been
marked by Lake Hāmun and the marshy country of western Sistān
(Seistan), and must have run south-south-west from that point to
meet the coast near modern Bandar-e Jāsk.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Consumed before the King: The
Table of Darius, that of Irdabama and Irtaštuna, and that of his
Satrap, Karkiš, Wouter F M Henkelman (via Academia.edu), and
from External Links: The Achaemenid Court, Bruno Jacobs &
Robert Rollinger (PDF), and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and Persepolis
Fortification Tablets, Richard T Hallock (Oriental Institute Publications
at the University of Chicago, available for download as a PDF).)
c.546
- 540 BC :
During his campaigns in the east, Cyrus the Great initially takes
the northern route from Persis towards Bakhtrish to reassure or
subdue the provinces. This route probably involves the 'militaris
via' by Rhagai to Parthawa. At some point he takes the more difficult
southern route, destroying Capisa along the way (possibly Kapisa
on the Koh Daman plain to the north of Kabul - which is possibly
also the Kapishakanish named at Behistun as a fortress in Harahuwatish).
![Cyrus the Great](Persia_CyrusGreat_01_full.jpg)
Cyrus
the Great freed the Indo-Iranian Parsua people from Median domination
to establish a nation that is recognisable to this day, and an empire
that provided the basis for the vast territories that were later
ruled by Alexander the Great
On
a fresh leg of the campaign, Cyrus enters the Dasht-i-Lut desert
(the modern Dasht-e Loot) on the eastern route out of Karmana towards
Harahuwatish. His army faces crippling loses but for the assistance
provided by the Ariaspae on the River Helmand. They are named 'the
Benefactors' (Greek 'Euergetai') by Cyrus in thanks. This route
appears to have been poorly reconnoitred, hinting at a lack of Persian
knowledge of this region (and therefore a lack of preceding Median
occupation if the existence of its eastern empire is to be believed).
539 - ? BC :
Nabonidus
/ Nabűna'id / Nabo-Naid : Satrap
of Karmana. Former Neo-Babylonian king.
539 BC :
Nabonidus, king of Babylonia, angers his subjects by trying to reintroduce
Assyrian culture, including placing the moon god Sin above Babylon's
Marduk in terms of importance. Perhaps because of that, resistance
to Cyrus the Great of Persia, when he enters Babylonia from the
east, is limited to just one major battle, near the confluence of
the Diyala and Tigris rivers. On 12/13 October (sources vary), Babylon
is occupied by Cyrus. According to the Greek writer, Berossus (author
of the Babyloniaka (The Babylonian History), now lost
but quoted by later writers), Nabonidus is granted a residency in
Karmana (to the east of Persis) as its satrap.
516 - 515 BC :
Achaemenid ruler Darius embarks on a military campaign into the
lands east of the empire. He marches through Haraiva and Bakhtrish,
and then to Gadara and Taxila. By 515 BC he is conquering lands
around the Indus Valley to incorporate into the new satrapy of Hindush
before returning via Harahuwatish and Zranka. Presumably from there
he also passes through neighbouring Carmania, at least in part.
Along the way the Sakas are largely defeated and conquered, but
probably only along the borders.
![River Oxus / Amu Darya](River_AmuDarya01_full.jpg)
The
River Oxus - also known over the course of many centuries as the
Amu Darya - was used as a demarcation border throughout history
and was also a hub of activity in prehistoric times - but during
this period it flowed right through the heart of the region that
commanded the empire's east - Bactria
fl c.490s? BC :
Karkiš / Karkish : Satrap
of Karmana & Gedrosia?
c.490s? BC :
Karkiš is mentioned in the Persepolis Fortification Archive
or tablets, where he is enjoying a feast with Darius the Great.
The date is unknown, so the latter end of Darius' reign has been
used here to allow time for Nabonidus to relinquish his own hold
over the position as satrap of Karmana. Karkiš is not actually named
as satrap, but he is clearly in charge in Karmana. As previously,
Karmana is a minor post but now, rather than falling under the administrative
eye of Persis, it falls under the authority of Gedrosia, and Karkiš
holds both posts. It seems possible that Karmana is separated as
a satrapy in its own right by the time of Artaxerxes II (404-359
BC).
360s/350s
BC :
Artaxerxes II is occupied fighting the 'revolt of the satraps' in
the western part of the empire. Nothing is known of events in the
eastern half of the Persian empire at this time, but no word of
unrest is mentioned by Greek writers, however briefly. Given the
newsworthiness for Greeks of any rebellion against the Persian king,
this should be enough to show that the east remains solidly behind
the king. It seems that all of the empire's troubles hinge on the
Greeks during this period.
?
- 329 BC :
Aspastes
: Satrap
of Karmana. Retained under Greek rule.
334 - 331 BC :
In 334 BC Alexander of Macedon launches his campaign into the Persian
empire by crossing the Dardanelles. The first battle is fought on
the River Graneikos (Granicus), eighty kilometres to the east. The
Persians are defeated, forcing Satrap Arsites of Daskyleion to commit
suicide. Sparda surrenders but Karkâ's satrap holds out in the fortress
of Halicarnassus with the Persian General Memnon. The fortress is
blockaded and Alexander moves on to fight the Lykian mountain folk
during the winter when they cannot take refuge in those mountains.
![Alexander the Great crosses the River Graneikos](Macedonia_Alexander03_full.jpg)
Alexander
the Great crossed the River Graneikos (or Granicus) in 334 BC to
spark a direct face-off with the Persians that had been brewing
for generations, and his victory in battle near the river sent shockwaves
through the Persian empire
The
campaigning season of 333 BC sees Darius III and Alexander miss
each other on the plain of Cilicia and instead fight the Battle
of Issos on the coast. Darius flees when the battle's outcome hangs
in the balance, gifting the Greeks Khilakku and Katpatuka, although
pockets of Persian resistance remain in parts of Anatolia. Armina
is bypassed during the next move by Alexander, suggesting that it
has already capitulated.
Alexander proceeds into Syria during 333-332 BC to receive the submission
of Ebir-nāri, which also gains him Harran, Judah, and Phoenicia
(principally Byblos and Sidon, with Tyre holding out until it can
be taken by force). Athura, Gaza, and Egypt also capitulate (not
without a struggle in Gaza's case). By 331 BC he is ready for the
expected confrontation with Darius III in the heartland of Persian
territory, which he also wins. Greek forces sweep eastwards across
the empire.
330 - 328 BC :
In 330 BC distant Sogdiana becomes part of the Greek empire despite
the efforts of Bessus, self-styled 'king of Asia', to retain at
least some of the Persian territories. His claim is legal, since
Bakhtrish is traditionally commanded by the next-in-line to the
throne, but Persia has already been lost and his loose collection
of eastern allies provides nothing more than a sideshow to the main
event - the fall of Achaemenid Persia. Still, it takes Alexander
the Great two more years to fully conquer the region.
Argead
Dynasty in Carmania :
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's
death in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in
310 BC. Alexander's successors held no real power, being mere figureheads
for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire.
Following that latter period and during the course of several wars,
Carmania was left in the hands of the Seleucid empire from 305 BC.
Carmania was one of the less important satrapies. Under the Persians
it was presumed to have been part of the central main satrapy of
Pārsa or Persis which incorporated Persis and Ūja. This
was seemingly sub-divided into two minor satrapies which reported
to the central satrapy. They consisted of the minor or lesser satrapy
of Persis which lay at the heart of the empire and the minor satrapy
of Karmana. The latter must have been of inferior rank, since it
is not mentioned in the dahyāva lists. This is confirmed
for the time of Alexander the Great, when the post in Carmania represented
a first step in the impressive career of Sibyrtius and was therefore
of modest rank. It was an untroubled posting which was close to
the seat of central control and could therefore be given to less
practiced satraps.
The satrapy comprised roughly the area of the modern provinces of
Kermān and Lorestān in Iran. The capital is likely to
have been on the site of modern Kermān (although this city
has its direct origins in a town founded by Ardashir I of the later
Parthian empire). In Alexander's time, further governors who were
presumably of a lower rank are mentioned for the province's southern
section - which may correspond to Yutiyā in the Behistun inscription
- and for the island of Oaracta / Qešm. In the west the province
bordered Persis. Parthia lay to the north, with Drangiana and Gedrosia
to the east. The frontier must have been marked by Lake Hāmun
and the marshy country of western Sistān (Seistan), and must
have run south-south-west from that point to meet the coast near
modern Bandar-e Jāsk.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Who's Who in the Age of Alexander
the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire, Waldemar Heckel
(Ed), and from External Links: The Achaemenid Court, Bruno
Jacobs & Robert Rollinger (PDF), and Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
330
- 323 BC :
Alexander
III the Great : King
of Macedonia. Conquered Persia.
323 - 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded
half-brother of Alexander the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander IV of Macedonia : Infant
son of Alexander the Great and Roxana.
329
- 326 BC :
Aspastes
: Persian
satrap of Carmania, retained from Karmana. Executed.
326 BC :
Alexander's army enters western India through the passes of the
Hindu Kush, and a great battle is fought on the Hydaspes against
one of the region's local kings (Porus, of the Northern Indus province).
After a further advance eastwards, the troops rebel against the
prospect of more battles against another great army, that of Magadha,
on the Ganges. Alexander is forced to retreat, abandoning his hopes
of conquering India. While he has been away, Aspastes has attempted
a rebellion in Carmania. Now he meets Alexander in neighbouring
Gedrosia and is promptly executed for his treason.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
![Alexander in the Temple of Jerusalem](Macedonia_Alexander02_full.jpg)
With
Darius II dead and Alexander quickly suppressing his eastern regions,
various appointments had to be made so that everyday governance
could continue in those regions, with some governors (satraps) being
retained, some being executed, and some being replaced by Greeks
(Alexander the Great in the Temple of Jerusalem is an oil
on canvas by Sebastiano Conca, completed around 1736), while above
is the route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns across the ancient
world
326
- 325 BC :
Sibyrtius
: Satrap
of Carmania. Transferred to Arachosia & Gedrosia.
325 BC :
It is reported to Alexander while he is in Carmania that Abisares,
king of the mountain domain of the same name in the Northern Indus
province, has died, to be succeeded by his son, also known as Abisares.
Alexander confirms Abisares in his position, although the Greeks
are not particularly well placed to do anything other than this.
Their control of the far eastern areas of the Indus has already
faded, leaving Abisares largely independent of them. Nothing more
is known of him or his kingdom.
324
- 311? BC :
Tlepolemus
: Satrap
of Carmania. Retained after 311 BC or died?
323 BC :
Upon the death of Alexander his two successors are retained as figureheads
while the Greek empire is governed by Alexander's powerful generals.
Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, is the first general to
rule, carrying the title 'Regent of Macedonia', first with Meleager,
head of the infantry officers, as his lieutenant, but alone after
he has him murdered. In the first of many rounds of reorganisation,
Tlepolemus is confirmed as satrap of Carmania. (Dexippus lists Neoptolemus
as satrap here, but others such as Diodorus assign him to Armenia.)
322
- 320 BC :
The First War of the Diadochi (the successors - the generals
of Alexander's army) sees civil war break out between the generals,
and Perdiccas is murdered by his own generals during an invasion
of Egypt. Philip III agrees terms with the murdering generals and
appoints them as regents.
A
new agreement with Antipater makes him regent of the Greek empire
and commander of the European section. Antigonus remains in charge
of Lycia and Pamphylia, to which is added Lycaonia, Syria and Canaan,
making him commander of the Asian section. Ptolemy retains Egypt,
Lysimachus gains Phrygia and retains Thrace, while the three murderers
of the regent Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes - are
given the former Persian provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana
respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former regent, receives Hellespontine
Phrygia, while Tlepolemus is again confirmed in Carmania.
![Eumenes of Cardia](Macedonia_Eumenes01_full.jpg)
Eumenes
of Cardia, Macedonian general and one of Alexander the Great's 'successors'
between whom a series of wars were fought
319 - 315 BC :
The death of Antipater leads to the Second War of the Diadochi.
He had passed over his son, Cassander, in favour of Polyperchon
as his successor (possibly to avoid claims of dynasticism) but the
two rivals go to war. Polyperchon allies himself to Eumenes (Alexander's
secretary, former satrap of Cappadocia, Mysia, and Paphlagonia),
but is driven from Macedonia by Cassander, and flees to Epirus with
the infant Alexander IV and his mother Roxana.
Philip
III is killed by his stepmother, Olympias, in 317 BC who is herself
killed by Cassander the following year. Cassander also captures
Alexander IV and Roxana and installs a governor in Athens, subsuming
its democratic system. Eumenes is defeated in Asia and is murdered
by his own troops, and Seleucus is forced to flee Babylon by Antigonus.
The result is that Cassander controls the European territories (including
Macedonia), while the Antigonids control those in Asia (Asia Minor,
centred on Lycia and extending as far as Susiana). Polyperchon remains
in control of part of the Peloponnese. Despite siding with the losing
side under Eumenes, Tlepolemus is allowed to remain in Carmania.
314
- 311 BC :
The Third War of the Diadochi results because the Antigonids
have grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals so Antigonus
is attacked by Ptolemy (Egypt), Lysimachus (Phrygia and Thrace),
Cassander (Macedonia), and Seleucus (Babylonia). The latter re-secures
Babylon itself, plus Carmania, and the others conclude peace terms
with Antigonus in 311 BC.
Antigonus continues to fight Seleucus for Babylon but he is defeated
in 309 BC and withdraws. At around the same time, Cassander murders
the fourteen year-old Alexander IV and his mother, Roxana, ending
the Argead line of Macedonians. The fate of Tlepolemus after 315
BC seems to be unknown. Given the fact that he had formerly sided
with Eumenes (and therefore Seleucus) it is possible that he is
retained, as long as he is still alive, that is.
308 - 301 BC :
The Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC
Antigonus proclaims himself king, so the following year the other
generals do the same in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet
in his stronghold in the Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander
claims his territory. The war ends in the death of Antigonus at
the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
Lysimachus
and Seleucus divide Antigonus' Asian territories between them, with
Lysimachus receiving western Asia Minor (the Lysimachian empire,
including Pergamon and Phrygia), and Seleucus the rest (the Seleucidire,
including Susania, Babylonia, Bactria, Carmania, and the Indo-Greek
provinces), except Cilicia and Lycia, which go to Cassander's brother,
Pleistarchus, and Pontus, which becomes independent, and Phrygia
itself, which apparently remains with or is reclaimed by Antigonus'
son. Cappadocia is briefly usurped by Amyntas before Seleucus seizes
control and permits the restoration of the native ruling dynasty
there. Ptolemy remains secure in Hellenic Egypt, Libya, and Palestine.
Macedonian
& Parthian Carmania :
The unexpected death of Alexander in 323 BC changed the situation
dramatically within his vast Greek empire. Immediately his generals
divided the empire between them. Seleucus was able to expand his
holdings with some ruthlessness, building up his stock of Alexander's
far eastern regions as far as the borders of India and the River
Indus (Sindh). Appian's work, The Syrian Wars, provides a
detailed list of these regions, which included Arabia, Arachosia,
Aria, Armenia, Bactria, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia (as it was known)
by 301 BC, Carmania, Cilicia (eventually), Drangiana, Gedrosia,
Hyrcania, Media, Mesopotamia, Paropamisadae, Parthia, Persis, Sogdiana,
and Tapouria (a small satrapy beyond Hyrcania), plus eastern areas
of Phrygia.
Once safely under Seleucid control after the conclusion of the Wars
of the Diadochi, Carmania was governed by Macedonian satraps, although
details about them are woefully lacking. The capital of Seleucus'
new empire was initially at Babylon, the heartland of the former
Achaemenid empire that had preceded it, but like that empire, this
one contained such a mix of peoples and languages that it was rarely
a united entity. Gradual losses of territory over subsequent years
drove the Seleucid heartland westwards. The capital had to be transferred
to Antioch on the Orontes (Syrian Antioch), which was founded around
300 BC and renamed after one of the later Seleucid kings. More territory
was hived away by resurgent subject groups or new empires and the
Seleucids were eventually bottled up in Syria, with enemies all
around them. Meanwhile the eastern provinces, Carmania included,
tended to drift into obscurity as western writers lost sight of
them. Only occasional glimpses of events there were recorded, and
even some of these must be subject to some analysis.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by David
Kelleher, from Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus:
Books 11-12, Volume 1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John Yardley,
& Waldemar Heckel, from The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires:
Adaptation and Expansion, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, Michael Alram,
Touraj Daryaee, & Elizabeth Pendleton (Eds), from The History
of al-Tabari, Vol 5, The Sasanids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids
and Yemen, Tabari (CE Bosworth (Trans)), and from External
Links: the Ancient History Encyclopaedia (dead link), and Encyclopćdia
Britannica, and Iran on Trip (dead link), and Appian's
History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org. Where information
conflicts regarding the Indo-Greek territories, Osmund Bopearachchi's
Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné
(1991) has been followed.)
305
- 303 BC :
Following two years of war on the far eastern border of his empire
while he attempts a Greek reconquest of India, Strabo records that
Seleucus concedes the Indo-Greek provinces to the ruling Mauryans
as part of an alliance agreement. This includes the regions of Paropamisadae
(immediately to the east of Bactria, covering northern Pakistan
and eastern Afghanistan), Arachosia (modern southern Afghanistan
and northern and central Pakistan, and perhaps extending as far
as the Indus), along with Northern Indus (Punjab) and probably also
Southern Indus. Subsequent relations between the Seleucid Greeks
and the Mauryans appear to be cordial. Seleucus even appoints Megasthenes
as his ambassador to Chandragupta's court.
![Dasht-e Lut desert in Carmania](Persia_Dasht-eLut01_full.jpg)
The
Dasht-e Lut salt desert dominates northern Carmania (the modern
eastern Iranian province of Kerman), ranking as one of the hottest
locations on the planet
c.250 - 238 BC :
Areas of eastern Iran and the Seleucid satrapy of Parthia are gradually
liberated from Greek rule by tribesmen from the Iranian Plateau.
The founder of the dynasty which assumes the leadership of this
takeover is Arsaces. His Parthian kingdom is pronounced with the
seizure of Asaak (location unknown) in 248/247 BC. By about 238
BC he secures undisputed Parthian independence by attacking and
killing the former Macedonian satrap of Parthia, its recently-self-proclaimed
king, Andragoras. Hyrcania falls almost immediately afterwards.
The Seleucids seem to be able to hold onto the more southerly provinces,
such as Carmania and Gedrosia.
219
- 217 BC :
The Fourth Syrian War involves Antiochus fighting the Egyptian
Ptolemy IV for control of their mutual border. Troops from Carmania
are involved on the Seleucid side. Antiochus recaptures Seleucia
Pieria, Tyre, and other important Phoenician cities and their Mediterranean
ports, but is fought to a draw at Raphia on Syria's southernmost
edge. The subsequent peace treaty sees all the gains other than
Seleucia Pieria relinquished.
219
- 217 BC :
Aspasianus
the Mede : Satrap
of Carmania? Commanded troops during the war.
219 - 217 BC :
Byttacus
the Macedonian : Satrap
of Carmania? Commanded troops during the war.
209 - 206 BC :
Seleucid ruler Antiochus III invades Parthia. Its capital, Hecatompylos,
is occupied and Antiochus forces his way into Hyrcania, with the
result that the Parthian king, Arsaces II, is forced to sue for
peace. Buoyed by his successes in the east, Antiochus continues
on to Bactria. This independent former satrapy is now ruled by Euthydemus
Theos after he has deposed the son of the original ruler. Euthydemus
is defeated at the Battle of the Arius but resists a two-year siege
of the fortified capital, Bactra. In 206 BC Antiochus marches across
the Hindu Kush.
![Map of Bactria and India 200 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-200BC_full.jpg)
The
kingdom of Bactria (shown in white) was at the height of its power
around 200-180 BC, with fresh conquests being made in the south-east,
encroaching into India just as the Mauryan empire was on the verge
of collapse, while around the northern and eastern borders dwelt
various tribes that would eventually contribute to the downfall
of the Greeks - the Sakas and Greater Yuezhi
The
return journey proceeds through the Iranian provinces of Arachosia,
Drangiana, and Carmania. Antiochus arrives in Persis in 205 BC and
receives tribute of five hundred talents of silver from the citizens
of Gerrha, a mercantile state on the east coast of the Persian Gulf.
Having re-established a strong Seleucid presence in the east which
includes an array of vassal states, Antiochus now adopts the ancient
Achaemenid title of 'great king', which the Greeks copy by referring
to him as 'Basileus Megas'.
167 BC :
Under Mithradates the Parthians rise from obscurity to become a
major regional power, although a precise chronology is not possible.
Their first expansion takes the former province of Aria from the
Greco-Bactrian kingdom. It seems possible that Aria (and possibly
a rebellious Drangiana too) had already been conquered once by the
Arsacids, with the Greco-Bactrians recapturing it, probably under
Euthydemus I Theos. During the reign of Eucratides I the Greco-Bactrians
are also engaged in warfare against the people of Sogdiana, showing
that they have lost control of that northern region too (and by
inference Ferghana).
The other eastern provinces, all of which still appear to be in
Seleucid hands, must also fall to the Parthians very quickly after
this - including Carmania, Gedrosia, and Margiana - although firm
evidence to show a specific date appears to be lacking. Another
date which may be valid for these losses is 185 BC, when Seleucus
IV loses eastern Iran to Parthian expansion, but the fact that the
Parthians fail to expand out of their initial conquests until Mithradates
accedes makes this period a more likely one.
![A silver tetradrachm of Eucratides I of Bactria](Indo-Greeks_Coins04_full.jpg)
The
successor to Antimachus I of Bactria was Eucratides I, with this
silver tetradrachm being minted in his image at some point during
the twenty-six years or so of his reign
c.165 BC :
Defeated by the Xiongnu, the Greater Yuezhi are forced to evacuate
their lands on the borders of the Chinese kingdom. They begin a
migration westwards that triggers a slow domino effect of barbarian
movement.
140
- 130 BC :
Sakas have long been pressing against Bactria's borders. Now, following
their long migration from the borders of the Chinese kingdoms, the
Greater Yuezhi start to invade Bactria from Sogdiana to the north.
Initially, Saka elements who are already in Bactria become vassals
to the Greater Yuezhi.
115
- 100 BC :
With
Parthian territory having been harried for years by the Sakas, King
Mithridates II is finally able to take control of the situation.
First he defeats the Greater Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BC, and then
he defeats the Sakas in Parthia and Seistan (in Drangiana) around
100 BC.
Following
their own defeat, the Greater Yuezhi tribes concentrate on consolidation
in Bactria-Tokharistan while the Sakas are diverted into Indo-Greek
Gandhara. The western territories of Aria, Drangiana, and Margiana
would appear to remain Parthian dependencies. Although Carmania
doesn't seem to be mentioned directly, its position between Drangiana
and Persia would make it likely that this too is still in Parthian
hands.
![Map of Central Asia & India c.50 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-50BC_full.jpg)
By
the period between 100-50 BC the Greek kingdom of Bactria had fallen
and the remaining Indo-Greek territories (shown in white) had been
squeezed towards eastern Punjab. India was partially fragmented,
and the once tribal Sakas were coming to the end of a period of
domination of a large swathe of territory in modern Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and north-western India. The dates within their lands
(shown in yellow) show their defeats of the Greeks that had gained
them those lands, but they were very soon to be overthrown in the
north by the Kushans while still battling for survival against the
Satvahanas of India
AD c.210 - 216 :
The fractured Parthian empire is breaking down now. With the claim
to rule it already dividing the empire in two on official lines,
other minor kingdoms have already started emerging or will soon
do so. For the moment they probably acknowledge Parthian overlordship
in name, but essentially they are probably all but independent states
in their own right. At least three are known - Carmania (ruled by
a certain Balash), Margiana (ruled by one Ardashir), and Persis
(ruled by one Papak of the Sassanids).
?
- 210 :
Balash (Vologeses?) : King
of Carmania. Defeated by the Sassanids.
210 :
Having been all but independent for some time, Carmania is currently
ruled by one Balash. He is sometimes equated with the Parthian King
Vologeses, because Balash or Walash is the New Persian form of Middle
Persian Wardakhsh, which is well known in its Greek form as Vologeses.
However it is a frequently-used name for Arsacid kings, so there
is no guarantee that this is the same Vologeses as the Parthian
king.
After subduing two of the five regions of Persis, the Sassanid warlord
Ardashir I now conquers Carmania (Kirman) and removes Balash, whose
ultimate fate is unknown. Ardashir places one of his own sons in
command of the province, another Ardashir, while his own fight against
the Parthians continues.
210 - 224? :
Ardashir
: Son
of Ardashir of the Sassanids. King of Carmania.
224 :
Parthian King Artabanus has left it too late to confront Sassanid
expansion within the empire. The Battle of Hormozdgān costs
Artabanus his life, leaving the Sassanids as the most powerful faction
in Iran. It may be this victory which ends Carmania's brief period
as a kingdom and a renewal of its status as a province with Ardashir
son of Ardashir I as its first Sassanid governor. Governor Ardashir
certainly still holds the post at the start of the reign of Shapur
I in AD 241, and Carmania remains a Sassanid province for the duration
of the empire (which lasts into the seventh century).
AD 640 - 821 :
The region is gradually absorbed into the Islamic empire as it takes
Persia. Carmania suffers an invasion in 643 when the marzban
(governor) is killed but is apparently regained by the Sassanids
for a time. It is used as a bolt-hole for escaping Sassanid nobles
in 644 and 650. That last time is barely ahead of a much more significant
Muslim invasion which fully conquers Carmania, killing the marzban
at Behdesīr (founded by Ardashir I, the modern city of Kerman).
At first the city's isolation allowed Kharijites and Zoroastrians
to thrive there, but the Kharijites are wiped out in 698, and the
population is mostly Muslim by 725 (although a minority group of
Zoroastrians survives there to this day).
![Behdesīr (Kerman)](Persia_Carmania_01_full.jpg)
The
modern city of Kerman was founded as Behdesīr by the early
Parthian King Ardashir, lying on a sandy plain which is surrounded
by mountains to the north and east
Muslim
governors, or emirs, are appointed to control the Islamic
emirate of Khorasan in the name of the caliph. A seemingly partial
occupation of Transoxiana by Tang dynasty China is effected in 659
- possibly from the protectorate of Anxi in the Tarim Basin - but
is ended in 665.
The Abbasid caliphate's authority over the region is generally weak,
and power eventually passes in the tenth century to the Buwayid
dynasty, which maintains control even when the region and city falls
to Yamin-ud-Dawlah Mahmud of Ghazna in the early eleventh century.
In time, having largely preserved its territorial borders, Carmania
becomes the Kerman province of modern Iran.
Source
:
historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/
AsiaCarmania.htm#Persians