NABATAEA
/ NABATU
Prominent
during Rome's occupation of Judea were a people known as the Nabataeans.
They are famous to much of the world for their creation of Petra
(the Greek word for 'rock'), a unique city which was carved into
the rose-red rocks of present day Jordan and accessed via a narrow
one kilometre gorge known today as the Siq. The city combines eastern
artwork with the Hellenistic culture which was still prevalent in
the Levant of the time.
The
Nabataeans probably originated as a nomadic Arabic tribe known as
the Nabatu. They emerged in the seventh and sixth centuries BC,
migrating into the region which today forms parts of Jordan and
northern Saudi Arabia. The Assyrians knew them as allies of the
Kedarites, although little else has been recorded about them in
their early days. They spoke an early form of Arabic, and were often
labelled simply as Arabs by Greek and Roman writers.
As
their ancestor figure, the Nabataeans claimed Nebajoth or Nebaioth,
one of the twelve sons of Ismael (Ishmael), himself a son of Abraham.
The Kedarites also claimed descent from a son of Ismael. The truth
of the claim is debatable, of course, as Abraham's immediate descendants
are claimed as the founding fathers of many of the kingdoms which
existed on the borders of ancient Israel. The Old Testament does
mention the Nebayot, however, classing them primarily as shepherds.
The respected Jewish historian Josephus repeated the claim, and
provided further detail which rightfully belongs to the period of
the Nabataean kingdom (from 169 BC).
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Lisa Elliot, from
Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from Petra
and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans, Jane Taylor (2001), and
from External Links: Nabataea.net, and Livius.org.)
704
- 701 BC :
With the death of Sargon II, many of the former Assyrian subject
states rebel, especially Chaldaeans and neighbouring groups. Amongst
the rebels are listed the Hagaranu (possibly the descendants of
Hagar, the mother of Ismael), the Nabatu (very possibly the descendants
of Nebayoth, the eldest son of the same Ismael), and the Kedarites
(descendants of Ismael's second son). According to the records,
these tribes flee from Assyria into the Arabian Desert and cannot
be conquered. The use of 'tribes' here may be misleading. The Kedarite
kingdom at least is already in place, so these may be captured and
transported slave groups instead. With the recapture of Babylon
a priority, it takes the Assyrians until 701 BC to get around to
quelling similar rebellions in Judah and the Phoenician states.
![Sargon II of Assyria](Assyria_SargonII_01_full.jpg)
Sargon
II usurped the Assyrian throne, seizing it from the last of the
Ashur-Rabi monarchs, but he brought with him Assyrian resurgence
and a drive to expand the empire
fl 650s BC :
Natnu : Chief
of the Nabatu.
664 - 663 BC :
With the sacking of Thebes, the Assyrians complete their conquest
of Egypt, making it a vassal state with subject pharaohs. It could
be Natnu who leads the Nabatu (the early Nabataeans) in fighting
against Assyria around the same time. King Ashurbanipal records
conflict against the 'Nabaiateans' of Arabia. Bizarrely, perhaps,
there is a school of thought which refuses to connect Nabaiateans
of Arabia with Nabataeans of Arabia. The chances of two tribes having
such similar names is incredibly small, and if they do, then the
chances of them having a shared root is extremely high.
649
BC :
Shamash-shumi-ukin of Babylon rebels against his brother in the
Assyrian kingdom. Ashurbanipal soon besieges Babylon, bringing it
back into the empire. Rebellions in support of Babylon by the Kedarites
and Nabatu are also put down, possibly prior to Babylon's recapture.
It takes two years of direct rule before a puppet ruler of Babylon
is placed on the throne, while the son of the Nabatu chief is declared
leader of their people (his father's fate is not recorded).
c.649 BC - ? :
Nuhuru ibn Natnu : Son.
after 539 BC :
During the Persian period, Moab disappears from the historical record.
Although their precise fate is unknown, they may indeed be migrating
northwards along with the Edomites to claim the emptied lands of
northern Canaan. Their departure allows tribes of Arabs to make
a similar migration out of Arabia, including the Kedarites and then
the early Nabataeans, allies of the Ammonites. This movement could
be seen as an expansion of the territory they have held during the
constant fighting against Assyria, rather than a migration.
However,
the initial flourishing of the Nabatu in history is relatively brief.
In the same century they apparently disappear from records, as little
more is heard of them until they resurface as the Nabataeans in
the second century BC. During that time they are busy developing
a culture and society that creates the stone city of Petra in the
sixth century BC, probably during that brief flush of enthusiasm
and creativity that follows their arrival in the region. This flourishes
from the third century onwards, as the Nabataean trading kingdom
becomes prosperous.
312
BC :
A cuneiform inscription records the defeat of a Syrian army by the
Nabataeans. The Greeks of Argead Syria, under the command of Demetrius,
son of the Antigonid ruler, Antigonus Monophthalmus, attempt to
attack and plunder Nabataeans living in Edom on two occasions, but
on one of those occasions the Nabataeans choose to buy him off with
expensive gifts.
![Cuneiform tablet recording the Nabataeans](Nabataea_Cuneiform01_full.jpg)
The
cuneiform tablet records the existence of the Nabataeans, one of
the few mentions of them as later records were largely paper/papyrus-based,
written in Aramaic or Greek
259 BC :
The Zenon papyri mention that the Nabatu are trading Gerrhean and
Minaean frankincense, transporting them to Gaza and Syria. They
transport their goods through the Kedarite centres of northern Arabia,
Jauf, and Tayma. Early Nabataean pottery can also be found in locations
along the Persian Gulf, and around what is now coastal Saudi Arabia
and Bahrain. References from around this period also mention the
Nabatu as living along the western edges of the Arabian Peninsula
and in the Sinai. These Nabatu are also pirates who sail the Red
Sea plundering trading vessels. They go on to establish bases in
a number of seaports, including the port city of Aila (modern day
Aqaba), which is only some one hundred and twenty kilometres from
Petra.
Kingdom
of Nabataea :
169 BC - AD 106 :
The Nabataean kingdom arose in the ancient territory of Edom during
a period of depressed fortunes for the two regional empires, the
Seleucids and the Ptolemies. Essentially traders, the Nabataeans
had settled down since their early days of fractious relations with
the Assyrian empire, and the establishment of their kingdom probably
predates 169 BC by several decades, if not a century. Unfortunately
no ancient writer documented any such establishment so a true founding
date is unavailable. Harithath I is typically classed as being the
first king.
In
the second century BC the Nabataeans certainly did re-enter the
historical record, by expanding their territory into ancient Moab
where they dealt extensively with the Greek, Roman and Egyptian
empires. Their kingdom now stretched from Damascus (albeit briefly)
to the Red Sea, and from Sinai to the Arabian Desert. This is backed
up by Josephus, who stated that the Nabataeans lived across the
entire land stretching from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. He referred
to this area as 'Nabatene', the land of the Nabataeans, and went
on to say that it was the Nabataeans who conferred their names on
the Arabian nations. In favour of his statements being accurate
is the likelihood that he would have been able to speak to the Nabataeans
directly.
Their
capital city of Petra was founded some time in the sixth century
BC, although a settlement had existed in the area (which is in present
day Jordan) since perhaps the eighteenth century BC. The Nabataeans
themselves knew it as Raqmu (or Rekem) - Petra is a Greek word which
means 'rock'. The city flourished as an economic and religious centre
from the third century BC, surviving as such for about four hundred
years. Its site, in the Shera Mountains, was an important crossroads
for Arabia, Egypt and Syria-Phoenicia. As recently as 2010, new
surprises were being discovered there when experts from the Courtauld
Institute in London restored two thousand year-old Hellenistic-style
wall paintings, removing centuries of soot and layers of grease
to reveal exquisite artwork that rivals the Roman paintings of Herculaneum.
The
names of kings are shown first in their Arabic form wherever this
is possible. These are followed by the Hellenised version because
Greek culture remained dominant at the time of the kingdom's founding.
Greek and then Roman records remain the best sources for anything
involving the Nabataeans.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Jewish War
& Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from A History
of the Jews, Paul Johnson (1987), from A Report on Arabia
Provincia, G W Bowersock (The Journal of Roman Studies,
Vol 61, 1971), and from External Links: Appian's History
of Rome: The Syrian Wars, and Nabataeans, both at Livius.org.)
169
- c.150 BC :
Harithath I / Aretas I : 'Tyrant
of the Arabs' & 'King of the Nabatu'.
c.165
BC :
Idumaea gains its freedom from Seleucid rule, probably at the same
time as Judea achieves its own independence by fighting a brief
but successful struggle against the Seleucids. By this time, the
Nabataeans already control the Kedarites to the south.
![The city of Petra](Nabataea_Petra01_full.jpg)
Petra
was founded in the sixth century BC on the site of an earlier but
far more minor settlement, and grew to its full magnificence as
the Nabataean capital in the second century BC
c.150 - ? BC :
Malichus? (I) : Name
uncertain. Noted by Josephus as king about 145 BC.
146 - 145 BC :
The son of Demetrius, Demetrius II, begins a revolt against Alexander
Balas, ruler of the Seleucid empire. Demetrius' general, Apollonius,
is defeated by Jonathan Apphus of Judea, but Alexander's position
grows increasingly tenuous. He attempts to flee at the start of
145 BC but is killed by Nabataeans.
?
- 110 BC :
ar-Rabil? / Rabbel (I) : Name
uncertain.
110 - 96/92 BC :
Harithath II / Aretas II : 'Erotimus,
King of the Arabs' noted by Alexander Jannĉus.
96/2 - c.88/6 BC :
Ubaidah I / Obodas I : Son.
'King of the Arabs'.
93 - 90 BC :
A number of Nabataeans are forcibly converted to Judaism by the
Hasmonaean king, Alexander Jannĉus (Jannaeus). Once he has safely
put down a local rebellion he invades and occupies the Nabataean
towns of Gilead and Moab. There he imposes tribute although the
amount is unknown. Obodas I has prepared for such an attack and
is soon able to respond by ambushing Alexander's forces near Gaulane.
The Judean army is destroyed in 90 BC and Obodas is able to gain
control of the Hauran and Jebal Druze.
c.88
- 87 BC :
ar-Rabil II (I) / Rabbel II (I) : Brother.
Reigned for less than a year.
87 BC :
Seleucid ruler Antiochus XII attacks the Nabataeans from 87 BC,
intent on recapturing former imperial territory that has gradually
been lost to them. However, the empire is far from being the power
it had once been, so that although he kills ar-Rabil I, the Nabataeans
resist his advance.
c.87
- 62 BC :
Harithath III / Aretas Philhellen : Brother.
87 - 85 BC :
Harithath III makes an immediate impact, conquering Ammon from the
tyrant of Philadelphia and southern Syria from the Seleucids. In
85 BC, the inhabitants of Damascus invite the Nabataean king to
become their ruler. He adopts the Greek epithet, 'Philhellen' ('friend
of the Greeks') to show his credentials as a minor but important
power in the region.
![Petra in Jordan](Nabataea_Petra02_full.jpg)
The
Nabataeans developed their land in the Negev Desert, making it liveable
by building cisterns and damns to trap water and carving out terraces
and, eventually, palaces
64 - 62 BC :
Pompey conquers Syria, including Ammon, making Syria a Roman province
in 63 BC. The following year, Pompey's general, Scaurus, devastates
the area around Petra but is unable to capture the city, partially
because he has run out of supplies. The Nabataeans apparently buy
their freedom by paying tribute and, remarkably perhaps, retain
Damascus. Just as they had managed to avoid assimilation into the
Seleucid empire, now they are keeping Rome at arm's length.
62
- 59 BC :
Ubaidah II / Obodas II
59 - 30 BC :
Maliku I (II) / Malichus I (II)
32
- 31 BC :
Very soon after being placed on the Judean throne by Rome, Herod
the Great is supported by Cleopatra of Egypt when launching an attack
on the Nabataeans. His well-organised troops, which include a large
mounted force, plunder the kingdom and occupy Dium. The Nabataean
forces amass near Canatha in Syria, but are attacked and routed.
With Cleopatra now troubled by Herod's success, General Athenion
of Egypt sends a force of Canathans to the aid of the Nabataeans,
and this enlarged army is able to crush Herod's army. It flees to
Ormiza but Herod returns the following year to once again overrun
the kingdom.
![Julius Caesar and Cleopatra VIII](Hellenic_CleopatraVIII_Image01_full.jpg)
The
last independent Hellenic ruler of ancient Egypt, Cleopatra VIII
is perhaps one of history's best-known figures, thanks to her involvement
in Rome's affairs in the lead up to the formation of the empire,
and her two great romantic match-ups, with Julius Caesar and Marc
Antony
30? BC :
An earthquake hits Judea, seemingly soon after the conflicts of
33-32 BC. Herod offers the Nabataeans a peaceful continuation of
his domination of them but they choose to rebel. They invade Judea,
but Herod immediately crosses the River Jordan to Philadelphia (modern
Amman) and, once he has sighted the Nabataean forces, he attacks
their outer while they are holding off from battle. The confused
Nabataeans are defeated and retreat into a defensive camp. Herod
lays siege, with some defenders surrendering before the remainder
are refused surrender terms. The Nabataeans lose the battle and
effectively remain under Herod's domination.
30
- 9 BC :
Ubaidah III / Obodas III : 'The
Divine Obodas' & 'Zeus-Obodas'.
9 BC - AD 40 :
Harithath IV / Aretas Philopatris : 'King
of the Nabatu, who loves his people'.
AD 9 - c.16 :
Huldo / Chuldu : Wife
and queen. Co-ruler.
AD 40 :
Harithath IV's reign sees the greatest of Petra's tombs created,
as well as possibly adding the great High Palace. By this time,
under the terms and protection of the Pax Romana, the Nabataeans
have become wholly sedentary and civilised, offering Petra as a
cosmopolitan place for trade, albeit somewhat diminished trade now
that routes have been opened up with the east.
40
- 70 :
Maliku II (II) / Malichus II (III) : Son.
c.40 - 60 :
Shakilat
/ agīlat : Wife,
sister, and queen. Co-ruler and also regent for her son.
67 :
Maliku sends an army to help the future Roman emperor, Vespasian,
in the siege of Jerusalem in Judea. Maliku later loses control of
Damascus but retains the territory to the east and south-east of
it. Now that the Nabataeans have made the transition from nomad
to sedentary, they have become targets for other nomads. Tribes
from Arabia begin to attack the southern regions of the kingdom,
penetrating into the Negev where they destroy Oboda and forts on
the Petra-Gaza road.
![Roman siege of Jerusalem AD 70](Israel_Jerusalem03_full.jpg)
The
Nabataeans are perhaps unknown for the part they played in the siege
of Jerusalem in AD 67-70, however minor that part may have been,
with their support going to the Romans against their long-standing
regional rival
70 - 106 :
Ar-Rabil
II (III) / Rabbel Soter : Son.
'He who gives life and salvation to his people'.
c.71 - 90 :
Gamilat
: Wife,
sister, and queen. Co-ruler.
88 :
An inscription of this date gives ar-Rabil II his title, 'Soter'
or 'Saviour', perhaps because he has concentrated on subjugating
the Arab tribes which have recently caused the kingdom some trouble.
He also lays the basis for dry-farming and horse rearing in the
region.
However, with Rome in charge of Judea to the north and Egypt to
the west, trade between the two is increasingly carried out via
the Mediterranean, bypassing the trade route through Nabataea. The
kingdom suffers badly from the decline of the 'Incense Route'. When
the end comes, the Nabataeans offer no real resistance.
106
:
Maliku III (IV) / Malichus III (IV) : Son?
May have claimed the throne only, but did not rule.
106 :
Nabataea is officially subsumed within the Roman empire, becoming
the capital of the province of Arabia Petraea. The principle reason
is that Emperor Trajan wants better protection of the road from
Damascus to Alexandria. With the Nabataeans writing in Greek from
the third century AD and converting to Christianity by the fifth
century, Petra remains inhabited during the subsequent Byzantine
period, but has already greatly declined in importance.
The
Arab invasion of the seventh century destroys any remaining Nabataean
identity, incorporating them into the new Islamic empire. The Crusaders
construct a fort there in the twelfth century but this is soon abandoned,
leaving Petra to the local peoples who completely abandon it by
the fourteenth century. The city is largely forgotten until it is
rediscovered by the Swiss explorer, Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in
1812. By the twentieth century, the region is part of Hashemite
Transjordan.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/
ArabicNabataea.htm