DRANGIANA
/ ZRANKA
Incorporating
the Ariaspae, Asagarta, Drangians, Sargatians, Thamanaeans, &
Utians :
The
ancient province of Drangiana lay largely within what is now the
easternmost areas of modern Iran, roughly where it meets the border
between south-western Afghanistan and western Pakistan, and with
a focus on Seistan (Sistan) in Iran. The country is a dusty and
often stormy desert with sandy dunes, but there are fertile plains
along the River Etymandrus, the modern Helmand Rûd. Prior
to its late sixth century BC domination by the Achaemenid Persians,
Drangiana seems to have formed part of a much larger and more poorly-defined
region known as Ariana, of which the later province of Aria was
the heartland. Barely recorded by written history, its precise boundaries
are impossible to pin down. It may have encompassed much or all
of Transoxiana - the region around the River Oxus (the Amu Darya)
- and could have reached as far south as the coastline of the Arabian
Sea.
Drangiana
or Zarangiana to the Greeks may have been more readily known as
Zranka or Zraka to the Persians. The word apparently means 'waterland'.
Following its formation into a province, it was bounded to the north
by Arachosia, to the east by the Indus region of far western India,
to the south by Gedrosia, and to the west by Carmania. As a whole,
this region formed the meeting point between Central Asia and South
Asia. By the first millennium BC it may have been populated largely
by Indo-Iranian tribes which had migrated south across the River
Oxus and then expanded to the east and west. Those tribes which
remained in the regions immediately to the south of the river appear
to enter the historical record around the sixth century BC, when
they came up against their cousins from the rapidly expanding Persian
empire.
One
of those tribes was known as the Drangians, from which the region
gained its name. They have also been referred to as the Sarangians,
Drangae, and Zarangae, and are claimed as being subjects of the
Median empire when this was at its height (although calling it an
'empire' may be a mistaken view of something which may have been
more akin to a domination of tribal confederations with the Medes
at the top). The Drangians and other tribes in eastern Iran were
Indo-Iranians themselves, just like the Medes and Persians. They
spoke the same language and had the same customs, such as the fire
cult and the cult of the supreme god, Ahuramazda, so they probably
would not have viewed Persian rule as an occupation by a foreign
power. Breaking down Indo-Iranian tribal names is tricky. The closest
finding in Avestan/Old Iranian is dar?g?¯m (adjective); accusative
singular neuter 'long'. As for what might be 'long' in the name,
this may have to be left as one of history's mysteries for now (possibly
the River Etymandrus).
According
to Greek historians who documented the campaigns of Alexander the
Great, there was also a tribe in Drangiana called the Ariaspae or
Ariaspai. They were neighbours of the Gedrosii to their south. Their
name is most likely the Latin version of the Greek form, which would
be much closer to Ariaspaeoi. Without the Latin or Greek suffix,
the name is 'Ariasp', with an unknown meaning that clearly bears
a relation to the Arya name (see Ariana for more details). The 'sp'
of Ariasp is probably, almost certainly, a contraction with the
vowel missing, possibly in the same manner as the 'nt' in the word
'isn't'. Analysis of whether the vowel is missing from the front,
back, or middle still awaits. This tribe was also known as 'the
Benefactors' because they had saved the army of king Cyrus when
it was crossing the desert. Whether the use of 'Drangians' covered
a host of local tribes or the Ariaspae were a separate unit is not
known, but the Drangians were most likely the most numerous tribe
or confederation in the area.
During
the Persian conquest of Central Asia, the Drangians were placed
in the same district as the Utians or Utii, Thamanaeans (or Thamanaioi),
Myci, and Sargatians (Heredotus' Sagartioi, Old Persian Asagarta).
Except for the Thamanaeans, who are generally unknown apart from
a suspicion that they were also present in Arachosia, and the Myci,
who lived in Oman, these tribes can all be found in central Iran.
The Sargatians were counted as one of the ten clans of the Parsua
but seem to have participated in the rebellion of 521 BC against
Darius the Great. In later texts, the Utians are mentioned as inhabiting
the Zagros Mountains, to the north of the Persian capitals of Persepolis
and Pasargadae, but it is possible that in the sixth century BC,
they lived farther to the east and simply followed the migratory
path opened up by their Indo-Iranian cousins.
The
Utians and many other borderland tribes such as the Cadusii, Gelae
(Gelonians or Alans), and Tapuri of northern Media and the shores
of the Caspian were classed as Anariaci. The word can be broken
down as 'an', meaning 'not', plus 'aria', meaning 'Aryan, Indo-Iranian',
and the plural suffix '-ci'. They were the 'not-Indo-Iranians',
although the Gelae were indeed Indo-Iranians, if not quite of the
same general group as the Persians and Medians. Eventually, though,
they were absorbed into the dominant Persian population.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus: Books
11-12, Volume 1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John Yardley, & Waldemar
Heckel, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Faramarz, the Sistani Hero: Texts
and Traditions of the Faramarzname and the Persian Epic Cycle, Marjolijn
van Zutphen, and from External Links: the Ancient History Encyclopaedia
(dead link), and Zoroastrian Heritage, K E Eduljee, and Talessman's
Atlas (World History Maps), and Livius.org, and Old Iranian - Online
Avestan Master Glossary (University of Texas at Austin), and Dictionary
of most common Avesta words.)
c.1000
- 900 BC :
The Parsua begin to enter Iran, probably by crossing the Iranian
plateau to the north of the great central deserts (through Hyrcania)
but also by working round to the south of them. Already separated
during their journey, Parsua groups head in two main directions.
In time the northern groups find themselves in the Zagros Mountains
alongside their cousins, the Mannaeans and Medians. They are attested
there during the ninth and eighth centuries BC but disappear afterwards.
The southern groups, perhaps more numerous, trickle in through Drangiana
and Carmania, towards southern Iran and begin to settle there.
![Map of Central Asia & India c.700 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-700BC_full.jpg)
Following
the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations
and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC,
Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions
- Tūr (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming
the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering
India (green)
Located in the Fārs region of Iran, these Parsua come under
the overlordship of their once-powerful western neighbour, the kingdom
of Elam. In the later stages of Persian settlement, Assyria and
Media also claim some control over the region. As Elam's influence
weakens, the Parsua begin to assert their own authority in the region,
although they remain subjugated by more powerful neighbours for
quite some time.
c.620
BC :
The Medians (possibly) take control of Persia from the weakening
Assyrians who themselves had only recently taken control of the
region from Elam. According to Herodotus, Media governs all of the
tribes of the Iranian steppe. This sudden empire may well include
territory to the east which covers Hyrcania, Parthia, Drangiana,
and Carmania.
c.546
- 540 BC :
The defeat of the Medes opens the floodgates for Cyrus the Great
with a wave of conquests, beginning in the west from 549 BC but
focussing towards the east of the Persians from about 546 BC. Eastern
Iran falls during a more drawn-out campaign between about 546-540
BC, which may be when Maka is taken (presumed to be the southern
coastal strip of the Arabian Sea).
![Iran's Makran Coast](Iran_MakranCoast01_full.jpg)
Modern
Iran's Makran Coast formed the southern edge of the ancient province
of Gedrosia, on what is now the border with south-western Pakistan
Further eastern regions now fall, namely Arachosia, Aria, Bactria,
Carmania, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Gandhara, Gedrosia, Hyrcania, Margiana,
Parthia, Saka (at least part of the broad tribal lands of the Sakas),
Sogdiana (with Ferghana), and Thatagush - all added to the empire,
although records for these campaigns are characteristically sparse.
Persian
Satraps of Zranka (Drangiana) :
Incorporating the Satraps of the
Ariaspae
Conquered in the mid-sixth century BC by Cyrus the Great, the region
of Drangiana was added to the Persian empire. Before that it was
the easternmost part of the Median empire, who themselves had conquered
various fellow Indo-Iranian tribes. The Drangians (Drangae) were
based in this region, according to Strabo, while Pliny knew them
as the Zarangae. Other sixth century BC tribes in this region were
named as the Ariaspae, Sargatians, Thamanaeans, and Utians, all
Indo-Iranian tribes (see above for details). Under the Persians,
the region was formed into an official satrapy or province which,
according to the Behistun inscription of Darius the Great, was called
Zranka or Zraka (Drangiana is a Greek mangling of the name).
These eastern regions of the new-found empire were ancestral homelands
for the Persians. They formed the Indo-Iranian melting pot from
which the Parsua had migrated west in the first place to reach Persis.
There would have been no language barriers for Cyrus' forces and
few cultural differences. Although details of his conquests are
relatively poor, he seemingly experienced few problems in uniting
the various tribes under his governance. He was the first to exert
any form of imperial control here, although his campaign may have
been driven partially by a desire to recreate the semi-mythical
kingdom of Turan in the land of Tūr, but now under Persian
control. Curiously the Persians had little knowledge of what lay
to the north of their eastern empire, with the result that Alexander
the Great was less well-informed about the region than earlier Ionian
settlers on the Black Sea coast had been.
The Persians founded a capital for Zranka called Phrada which may
be identical to modern Farâh or the Achaemenid palace which was
excavated at Dahan-i Ghulaman (near modern Zabol). Gradually during
two centuries of Persian domination the region probably changed
from one which incorporated a tribal society of cattle drivers to
one of committed farmers who often lived in formal villages. One
new economic activity was the extraction of tin, which is used to
make bronze. By the time the Greeks arrived they could refer to
the Drangians as persisontes, which may mean that they were
effectively the same as Persians in Greek eyes. Zranka belonged
to the satrapty of Harahuwatish (Arachosia) in the Persian period,
thanks to Strabo's description of it being situated south of the
mountains that enclose Aria. This geographical reference is only
comprehensible if Arachosia is understood as a unit which included
Zranka. No minor satrapies within Zranka are known.
The minor satrapy of the Ariaspae was autonomous, as was
that of the Oritans. Arrian noted the fact that the Ariaspae lived
on the River Etymandrus (today's Helmand) - a note that is particularly
helpful when locating the province. Even better is the fact that
their territory bordered Zranka, Harahuwatish, and Gedrosia.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity
to the Modern Era, Daniel T Potts, from Anabasis Alexandri,
Arrian of Nicomedia, from Ctesias' Persica in its Near Eastern
Context, Matt Waters, from Alexander The Great: In the Realm
of Evergetǽs, Reza Mehrafarin, and from External Links:
The Geography of Strabo (Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1932),
and The Natural History, Pliny the Elder (John Bostock, Ed), and
Livius.org, and Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
c.546
- 540 BC :
During his campaigns in the east, Cyrus the Great initially takes
the northern route from Persis towards Bakhtrish to reassure or
subdue the provinces. This route probably involves the 'militaris
via' by Rhagai to Parthawa. At some point he takes the more difficult
southern route, destroying Capisa along the way (possibly Kapisa
on the Koh Daman plain to the north of Kabul - which is possibly
also the Kapishakanish named at Behistun as a fortress in Harahuwatish).
![Cyrus the Great](Persia_CyrusGreat_01_full.jpg)
Cyrus
the Great freed the Indo-Iranian Parsua people from Median domination
to establish a nation that is recognisable to this day, and an empire
that provided the basis for the vast territories that were later
ruled by Alexander the Great
On a fresh leg of the campaign, Cyrus enters the Dasht-i-Lut desert
(the modern Dasht-e Loot) on the eastern route out of Karmana towards
Harahuwatish. His army faces crippling loses but for the assistance
provided by the Ariaspae on the River Helmand. They are named 'the
Benefactors' (Greek 'Euergetai') by Cyrus in thanks. This route
appears to have been poorly reconnoitred, hinting at a lack of Persian
knowledge of this region (and therefore a lack of preceding Median
occupation if the existence of its eastern empire is to be believed).
521 BC :
Upon the execution of the Persian usurper, Smerdis, the Cyaxarid,
Fravartiš, tries to restore the Median kingdom (now the Persian
satrapy of Mada). He is defeated by Persian generals and is executed.
Darius the Great mentions that the revolt arises in Asagarta, which
is the land of the Sargatians within the satrapy of Zranka. The
Sargatians are one of the ten clans of the Parsua, raising the possibility
that it is some of Darius' own people who oppose him. However, the
Sargatians at this time may not be focussed entirely on the Drangiana
region. It is possible that they also exist in larger numbers farther
west, closer to the Zagros Mountains, and that it may be this group
which had raised the flag of rebellion.
![River Oxus / Amu Darya](River_AmuDarya01_full.jpg)
The
River Oxus - also known over the course of many centuries as the
Amu Darya - was used as a demarcation border throughout history
and was also a hub of activity in prehistoric times - but during
this period it flowed right through the heart of the region that
was known as Bactria
Ciçantaxma
: Rebel
who claimed to be a descendant of Cyaxares of Media.
521
BC :
The quashing of various simultaneous insurrections from Armina to
Parthawa and Verkâna is chronologically coordinated in Persian records
and occurs between May and June 521 BC. Ciçantaxma is another Sargatian
rebel who meets the same fate as Fravartiš after a very quick defeat
of his ambitions - mutilated, chained, and eventually impaled at
Arbela. Another major rebellion in Mergu happens towards the end
of 522 or 521 BC and is quickly crushed.
516 - 515 BC :
Achaemenid ruler Darius embarks on a military campaign into the
lands east of the empire. He marches through Haraiva and Bakhtrish,
and then to Gadara and Taxila. By 515 BC he is conquering lands
around the Indus Valley to incorporate into the new satrapy of Hindush
before returning via Harahuwatish and Zranka. Along the way the
Sakas are largely defeated and conquered, but probably only along
the borders.
c.440s
- 420s BC :
The placement in Zranka of four satraps, father-and-son duo Hydarnes
and Teritoukhames and their two replacements, is highly uncertain
but is made possible because a city of Zaris is mentioned in their
story. Hydarnes is believed to be a descendant of another Hydarnes,
one of the seven who had defeated the Magi and elevated Darius I
to the throne in 522 BC. His family becomes important to the Achaemenid
succession, with a great deal of intermarriage into the royal line.
![Darius II](Persia_DariusII_01_full.jpg)
Two
sides of a drachm showing Darius II (423-404 BC) which was actually
issued much later - in the first century BC by the Parthian kings
of Iran - and which shows Darius in a Parthian-style tiara adorned
with a crescent
fl c.440s? BC :
Hydarnes
/ Idernes : Satrap,
with Harahuwatish & Hindush? Died.
fl c.420s? BC :
Teritoukhames
/ Teritoukhmes : Son.
Satrap, with Harahuwatish & Hindush? Killed.
c.420s - 410s BC :
The marriage alliance between Hydarnes and the descendants of Darius
I has been important in supporting Darius II in his acquisition
of the throne. Upon the death of Hydarnes, his son Teritoukhames
has been appointed satrap in his stead (although the name of the
satrapy is not given by Photius). Ctesias reports the plot by Teritoukhames
to rid himself of his unwanted royal wife so that he can marry his
own sister, Rhoxane. Darius has Teritoukhames attacked and killed
and Darius' queen, Parysatis, takes violent action against the rest
of Teritoukhames' family. There appear to be no survivors other
than Stateira, wife of Arsakes (eventually to be Artaxerxes II).
Many years later, Parysatis also arranges her death.
fl
c.410s? BC :
Oudiastes
: Replacement.
Satrap, with Harahuwatish & Hindush?
fl c.390s? BC :
Mitradates
: Son.
Satrap, with Harahuwatish & Hindush?
Mitradates opposes the royal court and also his own father and attempts
to establish the independent rule of the city of Zaris (Zarin).
Again this is assumed to be within the satrapy of Zranka. The prevailing
chaos in the Persian court and the great distance between it and
Zaris allows the rebellion to establish itself for a short time,
forming an independent Achaemenid state.
![Artaxerxes II of Persia](Persia_ArtaxerxesII_01_full.jpg)
Artaxerxes
II of Persia is immortalised in relief at the entry to his tomb
in Persepolis, having survived a reign that began with a series
of revolts and included war against the troublesome Greeks (External
Link: Creative Commons Licence 2.0 Generic)
360s/350s BC :
Artaxerxes II is occupied fighting the 'revolt of the satraps' in
the western part of the empire. Nothing is known of events in the
eastern half of the Persian empire at this time, but no word of
unrest is mentioned by Greek writers, however briefly. Given the
newsworthiness for Greeks of any rebellion against the Persian king,
this should be enough to show that the east remains solidly behind
the king. It seems that all of the empire's troubles hinge on the
Greeks during this period.
? - 330 BC :
Barsaentes
: Satrap
of Harahuwatish, Hindush, Thatagush & Zranka.
330 - 328 BC :
Barsaentes is one of the three most senior satraps of the east,
the others being Bessus in Bakhtrish and Satibarzanes of Haraiva.
In 330 BC, Zranka becomes part of the Greek empire despite Bessus'
best efforts to retain at least some of the Persian territories
as the self-styled 'king of Asia'. His claim is legal, since his
satrapy of Bakhtrish is traditionally commanded by the next-in-line
to the throne, but Persia has already been lost and his loose collection
of eastern allies provides nothing more than a sideshow to the main
event - the fall of Achaemenid Persia. Still, it takes Alexander
the Great two more years to fully conquer the region.
Barsaentes turns tail when Alexander appears at the border of Zranka
and does not wait for him to reach Harahuwatish. Instead he takes
refuge in the region of the 'Mountain Indians', a contingent of
whom he had commanded at Gaugamela. These facts (probably) indicate
that Barsaentes is also responsible for the province of Hindush,
the home of the Mountain Indians, and therefore that it is a main
satrapy of Harahuwatish.
Argead
Dynasty in Drangiana :
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's
death in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in
310 BC. Alexander's successors held no real power, being mere figureheads
for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire.
Following that latter period and during the course of several wars,
Drangiana was left in the hands of the Seleucid empire from 305
BC.
One
of the most informative sources when attempting to reconstruct the
satrapal administration of Arachosia and Gedrosia is that of Alexander's
appointments. In northern Arachosia, when he first encountered its
large administrative complex, Alexander made important decisions
about Drangiana, Gedrosia, Northern Indus and Southern Indus. These
regions were therefore subsumed in the Arachosian administrative
complex. During subsequent years Alexander's many adjustments in
this province are not easy to interpret, partly because some of
the appointed officers lost their lives during disturbances and
through illness. However, the fact that Sibyrtius was satrap of
Arachosia and Gedrosia is very good evidence that the two provinces
were ruled from Arachosia. The territory of the Ariaspae may also
have fallen partially or largely within Gedrosia in the form of
a minor satrapy.
The Persian regional capital was renamed by Alexander as Prophthasia,
meaning 'anticipation', as it was here that he discovered a plot
against him which had been organised, it was said, by his companion,
Philotas. The city was also known as Alexandria in Drangiana, but
its location was later lost to history. Opinion is divided when
it comes to pinning down the most likely candidate. One body of
opinion selects Nād-e ʿAlī. Another prefers Farah
(Phra), while Zaranj is also in the mix. This last choice can, to
an extent, be discounted as it appears on two maps (of 1578 and
a thirteenth century copy of a fourth century original) as a distinct
entity.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Ancient Samarkand: Capital of Soghd, G V Shichkina (Bulletin
of the Asia Institute, 1994, 8: 83), from A Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith (London, 1873),
and from External Links: Livius.org, and Encyclopaedia Iranica,
and Geography, Strabo (HC Hamilton & W Falconer, Eds, George
Bell & Sons, 1903 - Perseus Digital Library).)
330
- 323 BC :
Alexander
III the Great : King
of Macedonia. Conquered Persia.
323 - 317 BC :
Philip
III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded
half-brother of Alexander the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander
IV of Macedonia : Infant
son of Alexander the Great and Roxana.
330
- 323 BC :
Arsames
:
Greek satrap of Aria & Drangiana. Arrested by Stanasor.
323
- 321 BC :
Stasanor
the Solian :
Greek satrap of Aria & Drangiana. Gained Bactria in 321 BC.
321 BC :
Stasander the Solian is brother to Stasanor, now satrap of Bactria,
Chorasmia, and Sogdiana. Perhaps the brother also has more of a
focus towards the Northern Indus territories than the eastern coast
of the Caspian Sea, as later suggested by events. His territory
initially extends as far north as Ferghana, which contains the city
of Alexandria Eschate ('the Furthest'), while Stasander also has
ambitions.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
321
- 315 BC :
Stasander
the Solian :
Greek satrap of Aria & Drangiana (brother of Stanasor).
316 - 315 BC :
The Wars of the Diadochi decide how Alexander the Great's
empire is carved up between his generals, but the period is very
confused, especially in the east. These provinces appear to be invaded
and controlled by the Antigonids for a period, with General Antigonus
being responsible for the death of Eudamus. However, at some point
in 316 BC, Stasanor the Solian, satrap of Chorasmia, Bactria, and
Sogdiana (with Ferghana) seizes the Northern Indus while his brother
seizes Parthia. Clearly the two are either working in unison with
Seleucus of Babylonia from the beginning or are attempting to stamp
their own independent authority on much of the east.
315
- 312 BC :
Eumenes is defeated in Asia and is murdered by his own troops, and
Seleucus is forced to flee Babylon by Antigonus. The result is that
Cassander controls the European territories (including Macedonia),
while the Antigonid empire controls those in Asia (Asia Minor, centred
on Lycia and extending as far as Susiana), and also temporarily
some of the eastern territories, including Aria, Drangiana, and
Parthia, where Stasander is removed from office and replaced by
Euitus. Unfortunately he dies almost immediately and has to be replaced
by Euagoras.
315
BC :
Euitus
:
Greek satrap of Aria, Drangiana, & Parthia for Antigonus. Died.
315
- 312? BC :
Euagoras
:
Greek satrap of Aria, Drangiana, & Parthia for Antigonus. Killed.
314 - 311 BC :
The Third War of the Diadochi results because the Antigonids
have grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals, so Antigonus
is attacked by Ptolemy (of Egypt), Lysimachus (of Phrygia and Thrace),
Cassander (of Macedonia), and Seleucus (of Babylonia). The latter
does indeed re-secure Babylon itself and the others conclude peace
terms with Antigonus in 311 BC.
![Eumenes of Cardia](Macedonia_Eumenes01_full.jpg)
Eumenes
of Cardia, Macedonian general and one of Alexander the Great's 'successors'
between whom a series of wars were fought
Re-securing Babylon also means recapturing from Antigonus all the
eastern territories. Bactria is taken around 312 BC, and it is possibly
this event that serves to end the reign of Stasanor. Some areas
seem to have been lost to regional warlords, such as parts of Drangiana,
but by far the larger part remains under the control of the Greek
satrap of Bactria and Sogdiana.
Euagoras attempts to fight Seleucus alongside Nicanor of Media in
May 311 BC but he is killed and his men join Seleucus. Then the
replenished force goes on to defeat and kill Nicanor and take Media
too. Unfortunately the name of the replacement in Drangiana seems
to have been lost to history.
312?
- ? BC :
?
: Unnamed
satrap of Aria, Drangiana, & Parthia for Seleucus.
308 - 301 BC :
The Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC
Antigonus proclaims himself king, so the following year the other
generals do the same in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet
in his stronghold in the Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander
of Macedonia claims his territory. The war ends in the death of
Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Seleucus is now king
of all Hellenic territory from Syria eastwards, turning Alexander
the Great's eastern empire into the Seleucid empire, which includes
Drangiana.
Macedonian
Drangiana :
The unexpected death of Alexander in 323 BC changed the situation
dramatically within his vast Greek empire. Immediately his generals
divided the empire between them. Seleucus was able to expand his
holdings with some ruthlessness, building up his stock of Alexander's
far eastern regions as far as the borders of India and the River
Indus (Sindh). Appian's work, The Syrian Wars, provides a
detailed list of these regions, which included Arabia, Arachosia,
Aria, Armenia, Bactria, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia (as it was known)
by 301 BC, Carmania, Cilicia (eventually), Drangiana, Gedrosia,
Hyrcania, Media, Mesopotamia, Paropamisadae, Parthia, Persis, Sogdiana,
and Tapouria (a small satrapy beyond Hyrcania), plus eastern areas
of Phrygia.
Once safely under Seleucid control after the conclusion of the Wars
of the Diadochi, Drangiana was governed by Macedonian satraps, although
details about them are woefully lacking. The capital of Seleucus'
new empire was initially at Babylon, the heartland of the former
Achaemenid empire that had preceded it, but like that empire, this
one contained such a mix of peoples and languages that it was rarely
a united entity. Gradual losses of territory over subsequent years
drove the Seleucid heartland westwards. The capital had to be transferred
to Antioch on the Orontes (Syrian Antioch), which was founded around
300 BC and renamed after one of the later Seleucid kings. More territory
was hived away by resurgent subject groups or new empires and the
Seleucids were eventually bottled up in Syria, with enemies all
around them. Meanwhile the eastern provinces, Carmania included,
tended to drift into obscurity as western writers lost sight of
them. Only occasional glimpses of events there were recorded, and
even some of these must be subject to some analysis.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus: Books 11-12,
Volume 1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John Yardley, & Waldemar
Heckel, and from External Links: the Ancient History Encyclopaedia
(dead link), and Encyclopædia Britannica, and Appian's History
of Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org. Where information conflicts
regarding the Indo-Greek territories, Osmund Bopearachchi's Monnaies
Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné (1991)
has been followed.)
206
- 205 BC :
Seleucid ruler Antiochus III returns from his expedition into the
eastern regions by passing through the provinces of Arachosia, Drangiana,
and Carmania. He arrives in Persis in 205 BC and receives tribute
of five hundred talents of silver from the citizens of Gerrha, a
mercantile state on the east coast of the Persian Gulf. Having re-established
a strong Seleucid presence in the east which includes an array of
vassal states, Antiochus now adopts the ancient Achaemenid title
of 'great king', which the Greeks copy by referring to him as 'Basileus
Megas'.
![Map of Bactria and India 200 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-200BC_full.jpg)
The
kingdom of Bactria (shown in white) was at the height of its power
around 200-180 BC, with fresh conquests being made in the south-east,
encroaching into India just as the Mauryan empire was on the verge
of collapse, while around the northern and eastern borders dwelt
various tribes that would eventually contribute to the downfall
of the Greeks - the Sakas and Greater Yuezhi
167 BC :
Under Mithradates the Parthians rise from obscurity to become a
major regional power, although a precise chronology is not possible.
Their first expansion takes the former province of Aria (now northern
Afghanistan) from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. It seems possible
that Aria (and possibly a rebellious Drangiana too) had already
been conquered once by the Arsacids, with the Greco-Bactrians recapturing
it, probably during the reign of Euthydemus I Theos. During the
reign of Eucratides I the Greco-Bactrians are also engaged in warfare
against the people of Sogdiana, showing that they have lost control
of that northern region too (and by inference Ferghana).
The
other eastern provinces, all of which still appear to be in Seleucid
hands, must also fall to the Parthians very quickly after this -
including Carmania, Gedrosia, and Margiana - although firm evidence
to show a specific date appears to be lacking. Another date which
may be valid for these losses is 185 BC, when Seleucus IV loses
eastern Iran to Parthian expansion, but the fact that the Parthians
fail to expand out of their initial conquests until Mithradates
accedes makes this period a more likely one.
c.165
BC :
Defeated by the Xiongnu, the Greater Yuezhi are forced to evacuate
their lands on the borders of the Chinese kingdom. They begin a
migration westwards that triggers a slow domino effect of barbarian
movement.
![Map of the Yuezhi lands and exodus route](Map_China_200BC_Tocharians_full.jpg)
The
Greater Yuezhi were defeated and forced out of the Gansu region
by the Xiongnu, and their migratory route into Central Asia is pretty
easy to deduct from the fact that they chose to try and settle in
the Ili river valley below Lake Balkhash
Sakas have long been pressing against Bactria's borders. Now, following
a long migration from the borders of the Chinese kingdoms, the Greater
Yuezhi start to invade Bactria from Sogdiana to the north. Initially,
Saka elements who are already in Bactria become vassals to the Greater
Yuezhi.
140 - 130 BC :
At around the time of the death of Indo-Greek king Menander in 130
BC, the Greater Yuezhi overrun Bactria and end Greek rule. Heliocles
may possibly invade the western part of the Indo-Greek kingdom,
as there are strong suggestions that the Eucratids continue to rule
there, especially in the form of Heliocles' presumed son, Lysias.
115
- 100 BC :
With
Parthian territory having been harried for years by the Sakas, King
Mithridates II is finally able to take control of the situation.
First he defeats the Greater Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BC, and then
he defeats the Sakas in Parthia and Seistan (in Drangiana) around
100 BC. After their defeat, the Greater Yuezhi tribes concentrate
on consolidation in Bactria-Tokharistan while the Sakas are diverted
into Indo-Greek Gandhara. The western territories of Aria, Drangiana,
and Margiana would appear to remain Parthian dependencies. Although
Carmania doesn't seem to be mentioned directly, its position between
Drangiana and Persia would make it likely that this too is still
in Parthian hands.
![Ruins near Seistan](Seistan_Ruins02_full.jpg)
Ruins
near Seistan (Sakastan or Drangiana) were probably quite common
even by the first two centuries BC, with outposts and cities being
occupied and abandoned as the climate changed
c.AD 20 :
With the Parthian empire gradually fracturing and collapsing, Gondophares
ventures east into recently-captured territory where he establishes
an independent Indo-Parthian kingdom in what is now Afghanistan.
His kingdom stretches from Arachosia and Gedrosia to northern India,
perhaps also with territory within Drangiana. Despite various efforts,
Parthian King Artabanus is unable to restore these Indo-Parthians
to Parthian control.
c.135
:
Pacores is the last Indo-Parthian king with any real power (in Drangiana
and Gandhara especially), and even that does not extend into former
core Indo-Parthian territories in Arachosia and Sindh. One more
Indo-Parthian king follows him but in diminished circumstances,
and virtually unknown to history.
Sakastan
(Seistan) :
Around 155 BC, a large section of the Indo-Iranian nomadic Sakas
were displaced from Ferghana by the Greater Yuezhi. They were undoubtedly
pushed towards neighbouring Sogdiana, where they were dominant enough
to take control of the region. This event was connected with the
migration of the Greater Yuezhi across Ferghana following defeat
by the Wusun and the Xiongnu. The Greater Yuezhi were soon forced
to move again, causing other tribes also to be bumped out of position.
The Greater Yuezhi soon managed to force their way into Bactria
and, by around 130-120 BC, they snuffed out surviving Greco-Bactrian
control there. Around the same time Sakas were also pouring southwards,
probably as followers of the Greater Yeuzhi but they soon forced
their way westwards seemingly on their own account. With Parthian
territory having been harried for years by the Sakas, King Mithridates
II was finally able to take control of the situation. First he defeated
the Greater Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BC, and then he defeated the
Sakas in Parthia and Drangiana around 100 BC. Saka imperial interests
were diverted into Indo-Greek Gandhara, but some Saka inhabitants
remained, possibly in great number.
When the Parthian empire faded, the Saka authorities in India were
able to push north-westwards to grab further territory such as Arachosia,
and possible Drangiana too, reconnecting with the subject Sakas
there. By the first century AD the Indo-Parthians had taken over
in the region, before the Sassanids secured it from the direction
of Iran. But its Saka population had changed the region's identity.
The old name of Drangiana appears to have faded out of use (the
continuing changes of regime controlling it probably hastened the
process). Now it was Sakastan or Seistan - the land of the Sakas
(Seistan is a later shortening of Sakastan, but is often used in
more modern materials to refer to Sakastan). Around AD 240 the Sassanids
created the province of Sakastan or Sijistan out of what had once
been Drangiana and the process was complete.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World
(3000 BCE - 651 CE), Khodadad Rezakhani (Touraj Daryaee, Ed,
Ancient Iran Series Vol IV, 2017), from Foreign Impact
on Indian Life and Culture (c.326 BC to c.300 AD), Satyendra
Nath Naskar, from A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India,
P N Chopra & B N Puri, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook
(1983), from Zāwulistān, Kāwulistān and the
Land of Bosi, Domenico Agostini & Sören Stark (Studia
Iranica, Tome 45, Fascicule 1, 2016), and from External Links:
the Ancient History Encyclopaedia (dead link), and Talessman's Atlas
(World History Maps).)
?
- 457 :
Peroz
: Son
of Yazdagird II. Seistan's governor. Gained Sassanid throne.
457 - 459 :
The death of Shah Yazdagird allows his younger son to seize the
Sassanid throne ahead of the rightful heir, Peroz. The latter is
occupying the position of governor in Seistan (Drangiana) at the
time, and instantly seeks the protection of the Hephthalites. Their
king, Khushnavaz, is happy to take advantage of Sassanid disunity.
Other support comes from the House of Mihran which has already provided
the Chosroid kings of Caucasian Iberia, and Peroz is soon able to
capture Hormizd. Taloqan is ceded to Khushnavaz in thanks, expanding
Hephthalite domains westwards by an extra province.
![Map of Central Asia and India AD 500](Map_Bactria-&-India-AD500_full.jpg)
By
the late 400s the eastern sections of the Sassanid empire had been
overrun and to an extent occupied by the Hephthalites (Xionites)
after they had killed Shah Peroz
459 - ? :
?
: Unnamed
Sassanid successor in Seistan.
? - 651/2 :
Aparviz
:
Sassanid governor in Seistan.
652 :
Large areas of the territory (mostly western Afghanistan and large
swathes of Chorasmia) are conquered by the Islamic empire as it
takes Sassanid Iran, although Kabul remains independent as does
neighbouring Zabulistan. At this time the king of Zabulistan is
referred to as 'Rtbyl' in Islamic sources. Scholarly speculation
that there is more than one person named Rtbyl in Zabulistan would
appear to be accurate, with the word perhaps not being a personal
name after all. Tarikh-e Sistan of eleventh century Seistan (in
Drangiana) provides an extensive account of the wars of a Rutbil
of Seistan and Zabulistan against the Muslim conquerors of the region.
In
the same period, the son and heir-apparent of the last of the Sassanids,
Peroz (Pērōz), has reached the yabgu, the Göktürk
viceroy in Tokharistan. From there he soon turns for support to
the Tang court. The date of his first embassy to the Tang is before
661, before the formal submission of the yabgu to the Tang
after the downfall of the Western Göktürks. A second embassy is
received shortly after April 661. With minimal Tang support Peroz
is able to continue the battle against the invaders, mostly from
Sakastan and Tokharistan.
651/2
- ? :
Rabi
ibn Ziyad al-Harithi :
Umayyad governor. Later in Greater Khorasan.
666 - ? :
Pacores
is the last Indo-Parthian king with any real power (in Drangiana
and Gandhara especially), and even that does not extend into former
core Indo-Parthian territories in Arachosia and Sindh. One more
Indo-Parthian king follows him but in diminished circumstances,
and virtually unknown to history.
Tarikh-e Sistan of eleventh century Seistan provides an extensive
account of the wars of a Rutbil of Seistan and Zabulistan against
the Muslim conquerors of the region. These wars, starting with the
confrontation in Sakastan with Islam's Rabi' al-Harithi (Hārithī)
in 666, continue well into the ninth century when another Rutbil
is defeated by Yaghub bin Laith, founder of the Saffarids of Seistan.
![Nezak-Alchon coin](Xionites_Coins09_full.jpg)
Independent
rule of Zabulistan emerged out of Alchon-Nezak control, with their
dynasty eventually being succeeded by an entirely native one and
with coins such as this crossover type (dated to a period between
AD 580-680) no doubt remaining in use
c.738 :
The son and successor of Burha Tegin of Kabul is from Kesar who,
according to scholars, must ascend the throne of Kabul shortly before
738, although he is possibly a powerful viceroy who is based in
the eastern capital of Wayhind in Uddiyana. The coins carrying his
name and titles read 'Phromo Kesaro the Mighty (?) the King, the
Lord', and 'From Kesar, His Majesty, the Lord, who smote the Arabs',
in a countermark, thereby showing his successes in fights against
the Islamic empire. It could be speculated that Phromo Kēsaro
is either the same as the Rutbil of the Islamic sources, or is the
'Kabulshah' (ruler of Kabul) on whom the Rutbil, the possible series
of local rulers of Zabulistan, are relying for their continued fight
against the Muslim governors of Sakastan.
Saffarid
Emirs of Seistan (Southern Khorasan) :
AD 861 - 1003 :
In the millennium or so since the death of Alexander the Great,
his former satrapy of Drangiana had seen some changes. Invaded by
the Indo-Iranian Sakas in the second century BC, Drangiana became
the heartland of their new territories in South Asia. It was soon
known as Sakastan, the 'land of the Sakas', and this was corrupted
over time into Seistan or Sistan.
In
the late ninth century AD a Persian commoner by the name of Ya'qub
bin Laith as-Saffar, a coppersmith by trade, remade himself into
a warlord. He seized the Seistan region from the ruling Tahirid
emirs of Khorasan. Then he quickly and aggressively expanded his
holdings both east and west, conquering all of the emirate of Khorasan
by the time he died, which included parts of Transoxiana as far
as the River Oxus in the north. He also held western and northern
areas of what became Afghanistan, territory as far east as the River
Indus of India and bordering the kingdom of Zabulistan, and territory
to the south, reaching Kerman and Pars. His capital was at Zaranj
(Zarang), now in south-western Afghanistan.
Very
much a one-man empire, this great sweep of territory was not to
remain in Saffarid hands for long. Ya'qub failed to reach Abbasid
Baghdad itself (although he came close, and was recognised by the
Abbasids in 876 as governor of Seistan as a result). His Saffarid
empire was thereafter confined to the eastern parts of Iran. His
successor was defeated in battle by the Samanids in AD 900 and had
to surrender Khorasan (or Khwarazm as it became better known). Their
surviving rump territory lay to the south and west of greater Khorasan
but still often bore the same name. Eventually it became an eastern
Persian region which was governed separately from the rest of Khorasan
and could be better explained as Persian Khorasan.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the History
of Torbat-e-Heydariye, Mohammad Qaneii, from The Cambridge
History of Iran, Richard Nelson Frye, William Bayne Fisher,
& John Andrew Boyle (Cambridge University Press, 1975), and
from External Link: Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
861
- 879 :
Yaghub
/ Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar : Commoner-turned-warlord.
Gave his name to the dynasty.
865 - 873 :
Having already secured his capital of Zaranj at the heart of his
small kingdom, Yaghub expands eastwards to capture al-Rukhkhadj
and Zamindawar followed by Zunbil and Kabul by 865. Some of his
conquests even further east, towards Balk, encompass non- Islamic
tribal chiefdoms. Harev (Herat) is taken in 870. Then he expands
his borders greatly in 873 by ousting Emir Muhammad of the Tahirids.
Khorasan is captured, giving the Saffarids a great swathe of new
territory which may also include cities such as Ustrushana to the
north of Samarkand.
879
- 901 :
Amr
bin Laith / Amir Ibn Layth : Brother.
Captured in 900. Executed in Baghdad in 902.
900 :
The Saffarids under the command of Amr bin Laith are defeated by
the Transoxianan Samanids at the Battle of Balk. His territory is
much reduced, consisting primarily of Seistan itself. The Saffarid
princes now remain the vassals of the powerful Samanids who control
areas of what is now southern Afghanistan and south-eastern Iran
for a considerable period. The Samanids install their own governors
in Khorasan.
![Map of India c.AD 900](Map_AD900_full.jpg)
On
Persia's eastern border, India of AD 900 was remarkably unchanged
in terms of its general distribution of the larger states - only
the names had changed, although now there was a good deal more fracturing
and regional rule by minor states or tribes
901 - 908 :
Tahir
I ibn Muhammed : Grandson.
Never fully in command. Overthrown by Laith.
901 - 905 :
Despite being the recognised emir, Tahir finds himself dominated
by his uncle, Laith, and 'Ali, the slave commander Sebük-eri', one
of Amr's freedmen after being captured during a Saffarid raid into
Zabulistan. Tahir gains Fars in 901 and the city is held by Ali
until Tahir is formally granted its governorship in 903 by Caliph
Ali Muktafi at Baghdad. By 905, Ali is still in command of Fars
and is showing signs of independence. He cuts off the flow of revenue
from Fars and Kirman to Tahir. Tahir's lack of finance eventually
tells against him when his uncle's patience with him runs out.
908
- 910 :
Laith
: Uncle.
Captured in battle and sent to Baghdad. Died 929.
909 - 910 :
Laith deals with the rebellious Ali, Sebük-eri', by taking Fars.
Ali appeals to the caliph and is aided in recovering Fars. Then
he continues the fight against Laith, capturing him in 910. Laith
is sent to Baghdad as a prisoner while Ali is confirmed as governor
of Fars. In the end Ali is unable to raise the revenue demanded
by the caliph and flees eastwards, to be captured and imprisoned
until his death in 918.
910 - 912 :
Mohammed
I : Brother.
Recognised between Seistan and Kabul. Captured.
912 - 913 :
Amr
II : Nephew
of Tahir. Child figurehead. Replaced Samanid governor.
922 - 963 :
Ahmad
I bin Mohammed : Descendant
of Amr bin Laith.
963 - 1003 :
Wali-ud-Dawlah
Khalaf I / Kalaf : Son.
Dethroned by Mahmud of Ghazni. Dynasty extinguished.
1003 :
Khalaf has long been exhibiting irrational behaviour, including
the act of putting to death his own son, Tāher. He has largely
alienated popular support within Seistan in favour of the Ghaznavids.
Yamin-ud-Dawlah Mahmud is now able to march into Seistan, defeat
the emir, and carry him off into captivity where he later dies.
Seistan now becomes a province of the Ghaznavid empire, and the
once-mighty Saffarid house is extinguished. A Ghaznavid governor
is put in place in Seistan, becoming the founder of the Nasrids.
![Ghaznavid soldiers](Ghaznavid_Soldiers01_full.jpg)
This
computer-generated image of Ghaznavid regular troops provides a
pretty good replica of the real thing which can be somewhat hard
to pin down in contemporary illustrations from a region that was
in a near-constant state of warfare at this time
Nasrid
Emirs of Seistan (Southern Khorasan) :
AD 1029 - 1229 :
With the removal of the deeply unpopular and potentially unstable
Wali-ud-Dawlah Khalaf of the preceding Saffarid dynasty of emirs,
Seistan in Southern Khorasan was safely back under Ghaznavid rule.
Or was it? The Seistan region (formerly Sakastan, the 'land of the
Sakas', and sometimes shown as Sistan) was politically unstable,
along with much of Central Asia and South Asia under the rule of
many competing Islamic states. Having retaken the city, the Ghaznavid
ruler, Yamin-ud-Dawlah Mahmud, appointed an Iranian Sunni governor
named Nasr to Seistan with the title 'malik of Sistan'. However,
the death of Mahmud in 1030 ended the dominance of the Ghaznavids.
Conflicts soon began to arise between various Ghaznavid claimants,
and Nasr soon grabbed his chance to declare an emirate of his own.
Nasr's
emirate was based on what is now the Nimruz Province of modern Afghanistan
(the country's south-western corner, abutting Iran to the west and
what is now Pakistan to the south). Sometimes referred to as the
'Later Saffarids of Seistan', his dynasty is seen as a resurgence
of the Saffarid emirate, although it was only a little longer-lasting
than the original emirate. This dynasty was also not always independent,
being practical enough to serve as vassals of various larger powers
who occasionally dominated Seistan. They should not be confused
with the Nasrids of Granada who ruled in the thirteenth century.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the History
of Torbat-e-Heydariye, Mohammad Qaneii, from Oriental Coins
and Their Values: The World of Islam, Michael Mitchiner (Hawkins
Publications, 1977), from Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic
World, Vol 2, André Wink (Brill, 2002), and from External
Links: Encyclopaedia Iranica, and Ismaili History.)
1029
- 1073 :
Tadj
al-Din I Abu l-Fadl Nasr (I) :
Ghaznavid malik of Seistan. Declared independence in 1068.
1040 :
Shihab-ud-Dawlah Masud is unable to preserve his father's empire.
Disastrously defeated by Seljuq Turks at the Battle of Dandanqan,
he loses the western Ghaznavid territories, including Khwarazm and
Seistan. Tughril-Beg is now Tadj al-Din's master.
![Tadj al-Din I Abu l-Fadl Nasr coin](Seistan_Coins01_full.jpg)
Shown
here is the obverse side of a coin which was issued during the reign
of Tadj al-Din I Abu l-Fadl Nasr at Seistan, an important Eastern
Iranian city in what is now Afghanistan
1055 :
The Buwayid amirs are defeated by Tughril-Beg of the Seljuq
Turks when he conquers Baghdad. With the Buwayids using the Abbasid
caliph as the titular head of their empire, the Seljuqs continue
the practice.
1059
:
Zahir-ud-Dawlah Ibrahim re-establishes a truncated Ghaznavid empire
after the unstable two decades preceding his rule. He agrees peace
terms with the Seljuqs and restores cultural and political links,
although apparently is not able to restore Ghaznavid dominance of
Seistan. However, the empire is increasingly sustained by riches
gained in raids across northern India, and the Rajput rulers there
offer stiff resistance.
1073
- 1088 :
Baha-ud-Dawlah
Tahir (II) : Son.
Seljuq vassal.
1088 - 1090 :
Badrha-ud-Dawlah
Abu 'l-'Abbas : Brother.
1090 - 1106 :
Baha-ud-Dawlah
Khalaf (II) : Brother.
1106 - 1164 :
Tajuddin
Nasr (II) : Son
of Baha-ud-Dawlah.
1118 :
The death of the Ghaznavid ruler, Masud, in 1115 had triggered a
period of instability in his empire to the east. Now Bahram Shah
wins the internecine fight with his brothers, but only as a vassal
of the Seljuqs. However, the death in the same year of Muhammad
Tapar results in the enforced division of Seljuq territory.
1119
:
A vassal of the Seljuq 'Great Sultan', Mahmud II, is one Garshasp
II, the Kakuyid emir of the eastern Persian cities of Abarkuh and
Yazd. Now disgraced, Mahmud removes him from office by force. Garshasp,
however, escapes and returns to Yazd where he requests protection
from his brother-in-law, Mahmud's rival in the east, Ahmad Sanjar.
Giving Ahmad all sorts of intelligence on Mahmud's defences and
forces, Garshasp persuades him to launch an attack on central Persia.
Ahmad's coalition army of five kings defeats Mahmud at Saveh. The
kings are known to include Garshasp, the emirs of Khwarazm and Seistan,
and two others who are unnamed.
The
east (Khwarazm and much of Persia) is now under the overall control
of Ahmad Sanjar, Mahmud's uncle, although he has already dominated
the eastern lands of Persia for many years. Garshasp has been restored
to his domains while Mahmud now rules only in Iraq and the westernmost
fringes of Persia.
![Ahmad Sanjar](Khorasan_AhmadSanjar01_full.jpg)
The
Seljuq ruler, Ahmad Sanjar, held territory in the wider region of
Khorasan while his brother commanded as the 'Great Sultan' in Persia,
but Ahmad's dominance of the east increase beyond that of a subsidiary
ruler so that, in 1119, he was able to challenge for command of
central Persia itself and control of the title of 'Great Sultan'
1162 - 1163 :
A year after recapturing Seistan from the Seljuqs, the death of
Sa'if ud-Din Muhammad appears to cause fractures within the Ghurid
sultanate, with two rulers appearing, one each in Firuzkuh and Ghazni.
1164
- 1167 :
Shamsuddin
Ahmad (II) :
Ghurid vassal.
1167 - 1215 :
Tajuddin
Harb / Taj-Ud-Din Harb : Son
of Muhammad & grandson of Tadj al-Din. Ghurid vassal.
1194 :
The Khwarazm emirate gains independence from the Seljuqs by overthrowing
them and occupying much of the rest of Greater Khorasan, including
Ghurid Seistan and the heartland of Persia itself.
1215
- 1221 :
Yaminuddin
/ Shamsuddin Bahram Shah : Son.
Killed by Mongols.
1200s :
The Turkic Afshar tribe migrates from Azerbaijan to Southern Khorasan
(now northern and western Afghanistan). In time the tribe gains
a good grounding in battle tactics in the politically unstable region,
and a fighting mentality which stands one of its sons in good stead
when he founds the eighteenth century Afsharid dynasty of Persia.
1220
- 1221 :
After the shah of Khwarazm decapitates the Mongol ambassador from
Chingiz Khan, the emirate is attacked twice by Chingiz Khan and
the Golden Horde, along with Ghurid Afghanistan. Khwarazm is reduced
to its western section covering northern Mesopotamia and western
Persia. Shamsuddin Bahram Shah of Seistan is killed, and Bukhara
and then Samarkand are captured by the Mongols. Chaos results, with
thousands being massacred or sold into slavery. As can be expected,
Seistan endures a period of instability which is not helped by the
sons of Shamsuddin Bahram squabbling over the succession.
1221
:
Nusratuddin
/ Tajuddin Nasr (III/IV) : Son.
Supported by the nobility. Dethroned.
1221 - 1222 :
Ruknuddin
Abu-Mansur : Brother.
Supported by the rival Ismailis of Kohistan.
1221 - 1222 :
Tajuddin Nasr has proven his enmity towards the Ismailis of Kohistan
by upholding his late father's claim on the disputed fortress of
Shahanshah. The Ismailis have removed that threat by supporting
his brother, Ruknuddin. But in 1222, with Mongols raiding into the
region, Ruknuddin is killed by his own slave. Shihabuddin Mahmud
is selected by the nobles of Seistan as his successor, to the displeasure
of the Ismailis.
![Tajuddin Nasr coin](Seistan_Coins02_full.jpg)
Both
sides are shown here of a coin that was issued during the brief
reign of Tajuddin Nasr in 1221, before he was dethroned by his brother
in the turbulent aftermath of the arrival of the Mongols
1222 - 1225 :
Shihabuddin
Mahmud (I) : Son
of Tajuddin Harb.
1225 :
The Ismailis have another candidate of their own for the governorship
of Seistan - Uthman Shah bin Nasiruddin Uthman. They acquire support
from a Khwarazmian commander named Tajuddin Yinaltagin who is stationed
at Kirman. Yinaltagin arrives at Seistan in 1225 and defeats the
local forces but, instead of placing Uthman on the throne, Yinaltagin
secures it for himself for almost a decade.
1225
- c.1234 :
Tajuddin
Yinaltagin / Inaltigin :
Khwarazmian commander and true power in Seistan.
1225 - 1229 :
Abu
'l-Muzaffar Ali (I) : Brother
of Ruknuddin. Puppet figurehead.
1229 :
Ala
al-Din Ahmad : Brother.
Puppet figurehead.
1230 :
Uthman
Shah : Brother.
Supported by the Ismailis of Kohistan.
1231 - 1235 :
Control over the kingdom of Georgia is reaffirmed by a new Mongol
invasion under Ogedei Khan which also overruns the remnants of Khwarazm
(centred on modern Azerbaijan). The latter becomes part of Persia
and its territories which are under the governance of Tolui. Within
a year or so (1235) much of Southern Khorasan is also conquered,
including several minor principalities which include the Nasrids
of Seistan. In 1236, Shamsuddin Ali of the Mihrabanids is hailed
as the city's new malik.
Mihrabanid
Maliks of Seistan (Southern Khorasan) :
AD 1236 - 1495 :
The Mihrabanids succeeded the Nasrids as the rulers, or maliks,
of the Seistan region, usually under the dominance of greater regional
powers. They started off as vassals of the Mongols while the latter
were conducting their sweeping conquests of the Far East and Near
East and then became vassals of the Il-Khan branch of Mongols. The
Mongols had assigned Quhistan to another vassal group, the Sunni
Kartids. Quhistan (or Kohistan - meaning 'mountainous land') is
now located in the southern part of modern Iran's Khurasan province,
a much-reduced far western portion of Greater Khorasan, and so at
the very western edge of the thirteenth century region bearing this
name, For the sake of clarity the term ' Persian Khorasan' is used
to describe this western area. The Kartids soon extended their influence
throughout the eastern areas of Persian Khorasan and Southern Khorasan
from their seat at Herat.
From
Seistan (or Sistan), the indigenous Mihrabanids also increased their
power and influence westwards into Quhistan. In fact they did it
so well that they eclipsed and succeeded the Kartids there. By 1289,
Malik Nasruddin had conquered all of Quhistan and placed his son
there, Shams al-Din, as governor (killed in battle in 1306 and succeeded
by his own son). Shams al-Din sponsored the poet, Nizari Quhistani,
for some years until the latter fell out of favour, was banished,
and had his property confiscated. Such territorial expansion was
rarely permanent though. At times the Mihrabanids could barely control
their own immediate territory, let alone conquer anyone else's.
Members of the ruling dynasty's family were often appointed to regional
governorships, and usually these governors behaved themselves.
Most
of what is known about the Mihrabanids comes from two sources. The
first is the Tarikh-i Sistan, which was completed in the
mid-fourteenth century by an unknown chronologist and which covers
the first hundred years of the dynasty's history. The second is
the Ihya' al-muluk, which was written by the seventeenth
century author, Malik Shah Husayn ibn Malik Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad,
and which covers the entire history of Mihrabanid rule of Seistan.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Isma'ilis:
Their History and Doctrines, Farhad Daftary, and from The
History of the Saffarids of Sistan and the Maliks of Nimruz,
C E Bosworth (1994).)
1229
- 1255 :
Shamsuddin
Ali II / Shams al-Din 'Ali : Son
of Mas'ud. Governor of Kohistan. Hailed as malik in 1236.
1253 - 1258 :
Hulegu and his Il-Khan Mongols begin the campaign which sees him
enter the Islamic lands of Mesopotamia on behalf of Mongke. Ismailis
(assassins) have been threatening the Mongol governors of the western
provinces, so Mongke has determined that both they and the Abbasid
caliphs must be brought to heel. Hulegu takes Greater Khorasan,
and quickly establishes dominion over Mosul. Hulegu's next conquest
is Baghdad, in 1258. The caliph and his family are massacred when
no army is produced to defend him.
![Hulegu Khan](Mongols_HuleguKhan01_full.jpg)
Inheriting
the Persian section of the Mongol empire through his father, Tolui,
Hulegu Khan led the devastating attack which ended the Islamic caliphate
at Baghdad, but he also brought the eastern Persian territories
under his firm control (he is seen here with his wife)
At the same time (1253), the town of Nih in western Seistan is besieged
by Negüder for the Mongols. Shamsuddin leads an army to the defence
of Nih and Negüder is defeated. A rebellion breaks out in Seistan
in 1255, while he is campaigning in northern Baluchistan, and the
Kartid malik of Herat, Shams-uddin, immediately makes the
most of the situation by capturing the city himself. Shamsuddin
is killed by the rebels, leaving Seistan in the hands of the Kartids
until Nasruddin can recapture it in 1261.
1255 - 1328 :
Nasruddin
/ Nasir al-Din Muhammad : Son.
In power from 1261.
1276/77 :
After regaining Seistan from the Kartids of Herat, enforcing his
authority over several rebellious towns, and putting down a rebellion
by his own chamberlain, Nasruddin still finds that relations with
the Il-Khans are rather rocky. Abaqa Khan now invades Seistan, but
his army is met by Nasruddin's own veteran forces. The Mihrabanids
successfully defend their territory.
1289
:
The Mihrabanids complete their conquest of Quhistan and the Kartid
maliks of Herat. Nasruddin appoints his son, Shams al-Din,
as governor of Herat. There are times when Shams al-Din must be
supported militarily when it comes to holding onto the city, but
overall the conquest proves a successful one.
1328
- 1331 :
Nusratuddin
/ Nusrat al-Din Muhammad : Son.
Gained Seistan at the expense of his brother, Rukn.
1331 - 1346 :
Qutbuddin
Mohammed II / Qutub al-Din : Nephew.
Killed by plague.
1346 - 1350 :
Tajuddin
I / Taj al-Din I : Son.
Usurped.
1350 - 1362 :
Jalal
al-Din Mahmud (II) : Son
of Rukn al-Din Mahmud. De facto independent ruler (1357).
1357 :
The Il-Khans collapse. As a result the Mihrabanids gain independence
by default and manage to hold onto it for almost half a century.
Southern and eastern Persia and Iraq are controlled directly by
the Jalayirids until 1401, when a bigger and more powerful opponent
arrives on the scene.
![Herat's citadel](Afghan_Herat_Citadel01_full.jpg)
Herat's
citadel, known as the Qala Ikhtyaruddin or the 'Citadel of Alexander'
and conquered by the Mihrabanids in 1289, was founded in 330 BC,
although it has been destroyed and rebuilt many times since then
1362 - 1382 :
Izzuddin
/ Izz al-Din : Brother.
Deposed by his own son.
1363 :
The attempts by Tughlugh Temur, Chaghatayid khan of Mughulistan,
to quell the tribes of Transoxiana are eventually unsuccessful,
despite two invasions of the region. His death ends Chaghatayid
hopes of restoring control of western Mughulistan. Instead, two
tribal leaders contest for control of Transoxiana. Tîmûr-i Lang
(Timur) is ultimately successful, taking Transoxiana and Khorasan
in the name of the khanate, but effectively forming his own Timurid
khanate.
1380
- 1382 :
Increasingly angry at not being allotted a role in governing the
state, Izzuddin's son, Qutbuddin, has sided with a faction which
seeks to kill Izzuddin's vizier, someone who exerts a good deal
of influence over the malik. Now in 1380 they openly revolt
and defeated the malik's army in battle. The Kartids and
the malik of Farah straight away invade Seistan and reinstate
Izzudin, but the reversal is short-lived. Qutbuddin defeats the
invaders and regains full control by the end of the year. His father
is exiled and later renounces his title in his son's favour. Over
the course of the next year Qutbuddin concentrates on putting down
local rebellions against his rule.
Having secured his conquests around Transoxiana, Timur has begun
the expansion of his territory into Southern Khorasan and Persia.
He forces the Kartid dynasty of Herat into submission and demands
a hostage from Seistan to symbolise the subservience of the Mihrabanids.
Qutbuddin sends a relative named Tajuddin.
1382
- 1383 :
Qutbuddin
I / Qutb al-Din I : Son.
Captured, imprisoned, and executed by Timur.
1383 :
Despite agreeing a hostage to be sent to Timur in 1382, Timur still
turns up at Seistan with his army. The two sides fail to come to
agreement so Timur defeats the Mihrabanids in open battle. Qutbuddin
is soon captured, imprisoned, and deported to Samarkand. He is executed
three years later. Timur appoints Shah-i Shahan as governor of Seistan
and proceeds to devastate the province.
![Map of the Timurid empire AD 1400](Map_AD1400_full.jpg)
Herat's
citadel, known as the Qala Ikhtyaruddin or the 'Citadel of Alexander'
and conquered by the Mihrabanids in 1289, was founded in 330 BC,
although it has been destroyed and rebuilt many times since then
1383 - 1403 :
Tajuddin
II / Taj al-Din II / Shah-i Shahan : Son
of Mas'ud Shihna. Timur's appointed governor of Seistan.
1403 - 1419 :
Qutbuddin
II / Qutb al-Din I : Son
of Shams al-Din Shah 'Ali.
1419 - 1438 :
Shamsuddin
/ Shams al-Din 'Ali : Son.
1438 - 1480 :
Nizamuddin
Yahya / Nizam al-Din : Son.
Lost Seistan.
1469 - 1501 :
Uzun Hassan of the White Sheep emirate is able to capture Baghdad,
along with territories around the Persian Gulf. He expands his emirate
into Iran as far east as Herat in Southern Khorasan, replacing the
Black Sheep emirs as the main regional power. The emirate is not
a single entity, though, having been formed through uniting several
clans and tribes in the form of a confederation. Persia's eastern
territories regain their independence as the former Timurid empire
fragments, including the Mihrabanids, but this generates a fresh
wave of regional conflicts as local rulers jostle for supremacy.
1480
- c.1495 :
Shamsuddin
Mohd III / Shams al-Din : Son.
Unable to regain Seistan - replaced by Mahmud.
c.1495 - 1537 :
Sultan
Mahmud ibn Nizam al-Din Yahya : Last
Mihrabanid malik. Handed power to the Safavids.
1500 - 1507 :
In this period the Timurids are overthrown by the Shaibanids, who
conquer Transoxiana and now threaten Southern Khorasan. The remnants
of Khwarazm become an independent Muslim Uzbek state, known as the
khanate of Khiva. The Timurid prince, Babur of Ferghana makes many
attempts to recapture Samarkand from Khorasan, without success.
The Shaibanids now hold much of former Khwarazm, effectively ending
Timurid rule of Transoxiana. At the same time Sultan Mahmud regains
Seistan from its Timurid commander.
![Shahr-i Ghulghula](Seistan_Ruins01_full.jpg)
Seistan's
traditional territory included the remains of the Timurid-era Shahr-i
Ghulghula, a large fortified urban site covering approximately one
square kilometre which now lies in Afghanistan's Nimruz Province,
to the east of Seistan itself
1537 :
Having previously regained Seistan, Sultan Mahmud now recognises
the authority of the Safavids and hands over control of Seistan
to Shah Tahmasp I. From the sixteenth century, the former emirate
at Seistan generally forms part of an eastern province of Persia.
The province continues to be referred to as Khorasan even though
it has formed only a small part of the greater emirate of Khorasan
and the subsequent region of Greater Khorasan. It frequently also
provides a bolt-hole for the defeated participants in various Persian
civil wars. It allows them to control the eastern border and still
claim to form part of a valid dynasty which can vie for control
of the whole of Persia. Generally it can be referred to as Persian
Khorasan.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsFarEast/
AsiaDrangiana.htm#Argeads