GEDROSIA
Incorporating
the Gedrosii, Ichthyophagi, & Oritans
:
The
ancient province of Gedrosia lay largely within what is now the
south-eastern corner of modern Iran, roughly in the lower half of
the province of Sistan and Baluchestan, but perhaps also edging
across the border into modern Pakistan in South Asia. Prior to its
late sixth century BC domination by the Achaemenid Persians, Gedrosia
seems to have formed part of a much larger and more poorly-defined
region known as Ariana, of which the later province of Aria was
the heartland. Barely recorded by written history, its precise boundaries
are impossible to pin down. It may have encompassed much or all
of Transoxiana - the region around the River Oxus (the Amu Darya)
- and could have reached as far south as the coastline of the Arabian
Sea.
Following
its formation as a province, Gedrosia (or Kedrosia) was bounded
to the north by Drangiana, to the east by the Indus region of far
western India, to the west by Carmania, and to the south by the
Arabian Sea. This region also formed a bridge between the Near East
and South Asia. By the first millennium BC it may have been populated
largely by Indo-Iranian tribes which had migrated south across the
River Oxus and then expanded to the east and west. Those tribes
which remained in the regions immediately to the south of the river
appear to enter the historical record around the sixth century BC,
when they came up against their cousins from the rapidly expanding
Persian empire.
The
Gedrosii group of Indo-Iranians were based in this region (according
to Strabo, while Pliny knew them as the Gedrussi). The Oritans (or
Oreitans) had a district of their own in Persian Gedrosia but, seeing
as they were seeking a coalition with the Gedrosii, they were probably
closely related. As may be guessed, the Gedrosii were neighbours
of the Oritans, separated from them by the Tomerus/Hingol. The Ariaspae
were also neighbours of the Gedrosii. In the south the province
reached the Arabian Sea, where the Ichthyophagi (literally the 'fish-eaters')
still practiced a Neolithic forager culture.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus: Books
11-12, Volume 1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John Yardley, & Waldemar
Heckel, and from External Links: the Ancient History Encyclopaedia
(dead link), and Zoroastrian Heritage, K E Eduljee, and Talessman's
Atlas (World History Maps).)
c.620
BC :
The Medians (possibly) take control of Mesopotamia from the weakening
Assyrians who themselves had only recently taken control of the
region from Elam. According to Herodotus, Media governs all of the
tribes of the Iranian steppe. This sudden empire may well include
territory to the east which covers Hyrcania, Parthia, Drangiana,
and Carmania.
![Map of Central Asia & India c.700 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-700BC_full.jpg)
Following
the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations
and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC,
Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions
- Tūr (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming
the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering
India (green)
c.546 - 540 BC :
The defeat of the Medes opens the floodgates for Cyrus the Great
with a wave of conquests, beginning in the west from 549 BC but
focussing towards the east of the Persians from about 546 BC. Eastern
Iran falls during a more drawn-out campaign between about 546-540
BC, which may be when Maka is taken (presumed to be the southern
coastal strip of the Arabian Sea).
Further
eastern regions now fall, namely Arachosia, Aria, Bactria, Carmania,
Chorasmia, Drangiana, Gandhara, Gedrosia, Hyrcania, Margiana, Parthia,
Saka (at least part of the broad tribal lands of the Sakas), Sogdiana
(with Ferghana), and Thatagush - all added to the empire, although
records for these campaigns are characteristically sparse.
Persian
Satraps of Gedrosia & Maka :
Incorporating the Satraps of the Oritans & Paricania
Conquered in the mid-sixth century BC by Cyrus the Great, the region
of Gedrosia was added to the Persian empire. Before that it was
the easternmost part of the Median empire who themselves had conquered
various fellow Indo-Iranian tribes, with the Gedrosii being based
in this region (according to Strabo - Pliny knew them as the Gedrussi).
Under the Persians, the region was formed into an official satrapy
or province.
These
eastern regions of the new-found empire were ancestral homelands
for the Persians. They formed the Indo-Iranian melting pot from
which the Parsua had migrated west in the first place to reach Persis.
There would have been no language barriers for Cyrus' forces and
few cultural differences. Although details of his conquests are
relatively poor, he seemingly experienced few problems in uniting
the various tribes under his governance. He was the first to exert
any form of imperial control here, although his campaign may have
been driven partially by a desire to recreate the semi-mythical
kingdom of Turan in the land of Tūr, but now under Persian
control. Curiously the Persians had little knowledge of what lay
to the north of their eastern empire, with the result that Alexander
the Great was less well-informed about the region than earlier Ionian
settlers on the Black Sea coast had been.
When viewing the Persian satrapies, there is a notable decrease
of information as one travels from west to east. Gedrosia is not
the most poorly-documented of them, though. It is known that the
River Kabul formed the border with Harahuwatish. One of the most
informative sources when attempting to reconstruct the satrapal
administration of Harahuwatish and Gedrosia is that of Alexander's
appointments. In northern Arachosia, when he first encountered its
large administrative complex, Alexander made important decisions
about Zranka, Gedrosia, and Hindush. These regions were therefore
subsumed in the Arachosian administrative complex. This may have
been the case in Persian times too, although not exclusively, as
can be seen from the example set by Karkiš at the start of the fifth
century BC.
Maka
is presumed to be the southern coastal strip of the Arabian Sea
which sat on the southern edge of Gedrosia. Maka could instead cover
the entire Gedrosia region as the main name in use by the Persians.
The region's capital was situated in modern Makrān, while the
provincial capital was at Pura. Satraps are known only sporadically.
The minor satrapy of the Oritans had a provincial capital named
Rhambacia. During the Achaemenid period the region was autonomous
(as was that of the Ariaspae), and was probably situated between
the Hingol and the Hab. The Hab is selected as a potential eastern
boundary because the Oritans followed a wait-and-see policy during
Alexander's invasion, reacting only when he moved from Patara in
the Indus delta towards them. Paricania also seems to have
been a minor satrapy, with Arrian providing the linkage to Gedrosia
via the Oritans and Ichthyophagi.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Consumed before the King: The
Table of Darius, that of Irdabama and Irtaštuna, and that of his
Satrap, Karkiš, Wouter F M Henkelman (via Academia.edu), from
Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian of Nicomedia, and from External
Links: The Geography of Strabo (Loeb Classical Library Edition,
1932), and The Natural History, Pliny the Elder (John Bostock, Ed),
and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and Persepolis Fortification Tablets,
Richard T Hallock (Oriental Institute Publications at the University
of Chicago, available for download as a PDF).)
c.546
- 540 BC :
During his campaigns in the east, Cyrus the Great initially takes
the northern route from Persis towards Bakhtrish and Suguda to reassure
or subdue the provinces. This route probably involves the 'militaris
via' by Rhagai to Parthawa. At some point Cyrus builds a line of
seven forts to defend his frontier in Suguda against the tribal
Massagetae to the north, the strongest of these being Kyra or Kyreskhata
(Cyropolis - the Greek form of its name). Then he takes the more
difficult southern route, destroying Capisa along the way (possibly
Kapisa on the Koh Daman plain to the north of Kabul - which is possibly
also the Kapishakanish named at Behistun as a fortress in Harahuwatish).
![Cyrus the Great](Persia_CyrusGreat_01_full.jpg)
Cyrus
the Great freed the Indo-Iranian Parsua people from Median domination
to establish a nation that is recognisable to this day, and an empire
which provided the basis for the vast territories that were later
ruled by Alexander the Great
516 - 515 BC :
Achaemenid ruler Darius embarks on a military campaign into the
lands east of the empire. He marches through Haraiva and Bakhtrish,
and then to Gadara and Taxila. By 515 BC he is conquering lands
around the Indus Valley to incorporate into the new satrapy of Hindush
before returning via Harahuwatish and Zranka. Along the way the
Sakas are largely defeated and conquered, but probably only along
the borders.
c.505
BC :
Both Artavazda and Jamāspa are mentioned in the Persepolis
Fortification Archive or tablets (forming just about the largest
coherent body of material available today on Persian administration).
No other mention of them is available, leaving them with nothing
more than the most basic details, that Artavazda is satrap of Gedrosia
around 505 BC and that Jamāspa is either his predecessor or
successor (and perhaps not even immediately - there could be others
in between).
fl
c.505 BC :
Artavazda : Satrap
of Gedrosia.
fl c.500? BC :
Jamāspa : Satrap.
Immediate successor or predecessor to Artavazda.
fl c.500s BC :
Megabates : Satrap
of Paricania, with Harahuwatish & Gadara.
c.500s BC :
Megabates, son of Megabazus, is father to another Megabazus who
in 480 BC is one of the Persian fleet commanders during the campaign
against the Greek states. While Herodotus appears not to know where
to place Paricania (attributing it to 'Asiatic Ethiopians'), Arrian
links it with the Ichthyophagi and Oritans of Gedrosia. It would
also seem to be this Megabates who is later satrap of Daskyleion
in Anatolia.
![Darius the Great of Persia](Persia_DariusI_01_full.jpg)
The
central relief of the North Stairs of the Apadana in Persepolis,
now in the Archaeological Museum in Tehran, shows Darius I (the
Great) on his royal throne (External Link: Creative Commons Licence
4.0 International)
fl c.490s? BC :
Karkiš : Satrap
of Karmana & Gedrosia.
c.490s BC :
Karkiš is mentioned in the Persepolis Fortification Archive
or tablets, where he is enjoying a feast with Darius the Great.
The date is unknown, so the latter end of Darius' reign has been
used here to allow time for Nabonidus to relinquish his own hold
over the position as satrap of Karmana. Karkiš is not actually named
as satrap, but he is clearly in charge in Karmana. As previously,
Karmana is a minor post but now, rather than falling under the administrative
eye of Persis, it falls under the authority of Gedrosia, and Karkiš
holds both posts. It seems possible that Karmana is separated as
a satrapy in its own right by the time of Artaxerxes II (404-359
BC).
360s/350s
BC :
Artaxerxes II is occupied fighting the 'revolt of the satraps' in
the western part of the empire. Nothing is known of events in the
eastern half of the Persian empire at this time, but no word of
unrest is mentioned by Greek writers, however briefly. Given the
newsworthiness for Greeks of any rebellion against the Persian king,
this should be enough to show that the east remains solidly behind
the king. It seems that all of the empire's troubles hinge on the
Greeks during this period.
334 - 331 BC :
Alexander of Macedon launches his campaign into the Persian empire
by crossing the Dardanelles in 334 BC. The first battle is fought
on the River Graneikos (Granicus), eighty kilometres to the east
and the Persians are defeated. The campaigning season of 333 BC
sees Darius III and Alexander miss each other on the plain of Cilicia
and instead fight the Battle of Issos on the coast. Darius flees
when the battle's outcome hangs in the balance, gifting the Greeks
more territory including Khilakku and Katpatuka.
Alexander
proceeds into Syria during 333-332 BC to receive the submission
of Ebir-nāri, which also gains him Harran, Judah, and Phoenicia
(principally Byblos and Sidon, with Tyre holding out until it can
be taken by force). Athura, Gaza, and Egypt also capitulate (not
without a struggle in Gaza's case). Now, in 331 BC, he is ready
for the expected confrontation with Darius III in the heartland
of Persian territory. The Battle of Gaugamela is Darius' final major
defeat and he flees eastwards to be murdered by Bessus of Bakhtrish.
![Alexander the Great crosses the River Graneikos](Macedonia_Alexander03_full.jpg)
Alexander
the Great crossed the River Graneikos (or Granicus) in 334 BC to
spark a direct face-off with the Persians that had been brewing
for generations, and his victory in battle near the river sent shockwaves
through the Persian empire
330 - 328 BC :
Gedrosia becomes part of the Greek empire despite the efforts of
Bessus, self-styled 'king of Asia', to retain at least some of the
Persian territories. His claim is legal, since his satrapy of Bakhtrish
is traditionally commanded by the next-in-line to the throne, but
Persia has already been lost and his loose collection of eastern
allies provides nothing more than a sideshow to the main event -
the fall of Achaemenid Persia. Still, it takes Alexander the Great
two more years to fully conquer the region, with the work not being
completed until 328 BC. Greek-controlled Gedrosia is attached to
Arachosia.
Argead
Dynasty in Gedrosia :
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's
death in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in
310 BC. Alexander's successors held no real power, being mere figureheads
for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire.
Following that latter period and during the course of several wars,
Gedrosia was left in the hands of the Seleucid empire from 305 BC.
One of the most informative sources when attempting to reconstruct
the satrapal administration of Arachosia and Gedrosia (otherwise
shown as Cedrosia or Kedrosia, the 'c', 'k' and 'g' being largely
interchangeable in terms of pronunciation) is that of Alexander's
appointments. In northern Arachosia, when he first encountered its
large administrative complex, Alexander made important decisions
about Drangiana, Gedrosia, Northern Indus and Southern Indus. These
regions were therefore subsumed in the Arachosian administrative
complex. During subsequent years Alexander's many adjustments in
this province are not easy to interpret, partly because some of
the appointed officers lost their lives during disturbances and
through illness. However, the fact that Sibyrtius was satrap of
Arachosia and Gedrosia is very good evidence that the two provinces
were ruled from Arachosia. The territory of the Ariaspae may also
have fallen partially or largely within Gedrosia in the form of
a minor satrapy.
The minor satrapy of the Oritans had a provincial capital named
Rhambacia. During the Achaemenid period the region was autonomous,
but the Oritans followed a wait-and-see policy during Alexander's
invasion. They reacted only when he moved from Patara in the Indus
delta towards them, and then they sought an alliance with the Gedrosii.
Their autonomy probably ended at this point as they were drawn into
the satrapy of Gedrosia proper.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian of Nicomedia, from Historiae
Alexandri Magni, Quintus Curtius Rufus, from Ancient Samarkand:
Capital of Soghd, G V Shichkina (Bulletin of the Asia Institute,
1994, 8: 83), from Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great:
Prosopography of Alexander's Empire, Waldemar Heckel (Ed), from
Alexander the Great, Krzysztof Nawotka (Cambridge Scholars
Publishing, 2009), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia
Iranica, and Bibliotheca Historica, Diodorus Siculus (Perseus Project
Texts Loaded under PhiloLogic).)
330
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : King
of Macedonia. Conquered Persia.
323 - 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded
half-brother of Alexander the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander IV of Macedonia : Infant
son of Alexander the Great and Roxana.
333 - 330 BC :
In the winter of 333/332 BC following his capture of Syria, Alexander
the Great appoints Menon, son of Cerdimmas, to the satrapy of Coele
Syria. He is assigned allied cavalry for the defence of the region
while Alexander proceeds into Phoenicia to undertake the sieges
of Tyre and Gaza before entering Egypt. Menon's position in Syria
is subject to change and, by 331 BC, he is no longer needed there.
Instead he is to be found in Zariaspa in Bactria by 329 BC, delivering
recruits from Syria to Alexander where he has gained a fresh satrapal
command.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
330
- 325 BC :
Menon
: Satrap
of Arachosia (& Gedrosia until 325 BC?). Died 323 BC.
330
- ? BC :
Tiridates?
: Minor
satrap of Arachosia and/or Gedrosia?
330
- ? BC :
Amedines?
: Minor
satrap of the Ariaspae?
330 BC :
Arrian reports that the tribes of the Arachoti and Gedrosii are
left independent under Alexander. Diodorus states that both receive
Alexander with kindness and that the administration of both peoples
is given to one Tiridates. Menon becomes the official satrap
of Arachosia and Gedrosia (according to Arrian) or of Arachosia
alone (according to Curtius), so Tiridates may be a native of the
country who handles more direct administrative duties. Amedines
is counted as a minor satrap of the Ariaspae, with speculation making
him a replacement for Tiridates when he falls out of favour.
326 - 325 BC :
Alexander's army enters western India in 326 BC through the passes
of the Hindu Kush, but the troops rebel against the prospect of
more battles against another great army, that of Magadha, on the
Ganges. Alexander is forced to retreat, abandoning his hopes of
conquering India. While he has been away, Aspastes, satrap of Carmania,
has attempted a rebellion. Now, returning towards Persis from India,
Alexander enters Gedrosia from the east to meet Aspastes who reaches
it from the west. The satrap is promptly executed for his treason.
Next, a lightning campaign is conducted against the native Oritans
who have probably been independent until now. Quickly surrendering,
their capital of Rhambaceia (Rhambacia) is converted into a city
and may well be renamed Alexandria. Its precise location is yet
to be pinpointed.
It
is here that the position of satrap in Gedrosia becomes yet more
complicated to relate. Menon's death in 323 BC sees his post in
Arachosia being filled by the promoted Sibyrtius. Under this satrap,
Arachosia and Gedrosia certainly are governed as one joint territory,
but Gedrosia apparently gains a satrap of its own in 325 BC - Apollophanes
- with Leonnatus as commander of the satrapy's garrison. Tiridates
seems not to be mentioned, lending support to the theory that he
is a native minor satrap.
![Iran's Makran Coast](Iran_MakranCoast01_full.jpg)
Modern
Iran's Makran Coast formed the southern edge of the ancient province
of Gedrosia, on what is now the border with south-western Pakistan
325
BC :
Apollophanes
:
Greek satrap of Gedrosia. Killed.
325 BC :
Following the departure of Alexander and the main army, the Oritans
almost immediately rebel. Apollophanes is killed but Leonnatus is
able to quell the rebellion. Leonnatus then apparently rejoins the
main army while one Thoas is appointed as the replacement for the
slain Apollophanes. The death of Thoas in 323 BC is from natural
causes but this may be the point at which Gedrosia's administration
is handed to Arachosia.
325
- 323 BC :
Thoas
:
Greek satrap of Gedrosia. Died.
323
- 303 BC :
Sibyrtius
:
Greek satrap of Arachosia & Gedrosia. (Formerly in Carmania.)
315 - 312 BC :
Eumenes is defeated in Asia and is murdered by his own troops, and
Seleucus is forced to flee Babylon by Antigonus. The result is that
Cassander controls the European territories (including Macedonia),
while the Antigonids control those in Asia (Asia Minor, centred
on Lycia and extending as far as Susiana), and also temporarily
some of the eastern territories, including Aria, Drangiana, and
Parthia, where Stasander is removed from office and replaced by
Euitus.
312
- 306 BC :
The Wars of the Diadochi decide how Alexander the Great's
empire is carved up between his generals, but the period is very
confused, especially in the east. Bactria is taken by the Seleucids
around 312 BC. With that being the senior region of the eastern
territories it is likely that most of the others fall into line
even if they are not directly visited by Seleucus, so that by 301
BC he controls the entire east of the former empire.
Macedonian
& Parthian Gedrosia :
The unexpected death of Alexander in 323 BC changed the situation
dramatically within his vast empire. Immediately his generals divided
the empire between them. During the subsequent war, Seleucus was
able to expand his holdings with some ruthlessness, building up
his stock of Alexander's far eastern regions as far as the borders
of India and the River Indus (Sindh). Appian's work, The Syrian
Wars, provides a detailed list of these regions, which included
Arabia, Arachosia, Aria, Armenia, Bactria, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia
(as it was known) by 301 BC, Carmania, Cilicia (eventually), Drangiana,
Gedrosia, Hyrcania, Media, Mesopotamia, Paropamisadae, Parthia,
Persis, Sogdiana, and Tapouria (a small satrapy beyond Hyrcania),
plus eastern areas of Phrygia.
Once safely under Seleucid control after the conclusion of the Wars
of the Diadochi, Gedrosia was governed by Macedonian satraps, although
details about them are woefully lacking. The capital of Seleucus'
new empire was initially at Babylon, the heartland of the former
Achaemenid empire that had preceded it. Like that empire, this one
contained such a mix of peoples and languages that it was rarely
a united entity. Gradual losses of territory over subsequent years
drove the Seleucid heartland westwards. The capital had to be transferred
to Antioch on the Orontes (Syrian Antioch), which was founded around
300 BC and then renamed after one of the later Seleucid kings. More
territory was hived away by resurgent subject groups or new empires
and the Seleucids were eventually bottled up in Syria, with enemies
all around them. Meanwhile the eastern provinces, Gedrosia included,
tended to drift into obscurity as western writers lost sight of
them. Only occasional glimpses of events there were recorded, and
even some of these must be subject to some analysis. Where information
conflicts regarding the Indo-Greek territories, Osmund Bopearachchi's
work has been followed.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by David
Kelleher, from Osmund Bopearachchi's Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes
et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné (1991), from Epitome
of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus: Books 11-12, Volume
1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John Yardley, & Waldemar Heckel,
from The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and
Expansion, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, Michael Alram, Touraj Daryaee,
& Elizabeth Pendleton (Eds), from The History of al-Tabari,
Vol 5, The Sasanids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids and Yemen,
Tabari (CE Bosworth (Trans)), and from External Links: the
Ancient History Encyclopaedia (dead link), and Encyclopćdia Britannica,
and Iran on Trip (dead link), and Appian's History of
Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org.)
305
- 303 BC :
Despite the near constant vying for territory against the other
generals in the west, Seleucus Nicator is still able to pay attention
to his easternmost borders. He engages in two years of warfare here
in an attempt to stage a Greek reconquest of Alexander's territories
on the edge of India, but eventually without success. Strabo records
that Seleucus concedes the Northern Indus provinces to the ruling
Mauryans as part of an alliance agreement.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
This
concession includes the regions of Paropamisadae (immediately to
the south and east of Bactria, covering northern Pakistan and eastern
Afghanistan), Arachosia (modern southern Afghanistan and northern
and central Pakistan, and perhaps extending as far as the Indus),
along with Northern Indus (Punjab) and probably also Southern Indus.
Subsequent relations between the Seleucid Greeks and the Mauryans
appear to be cordial. Seleucus even appoints Megasthenes as his
ambassador to Chandragupta's court.
c.250 - 238 BC :
Areas of eastern Iran and the Seleucid satrapy of Parthia are gradually
liberated from Greek rule by tribesmen from the Iranian Plateau.
The founder of the dynasty which assumes the leadership of this
takeover is Arsaces. His Parthian kingdom is pronounced with the
seizure of Asaak (location unknown) in 248/247 BC.
By
about 238 BC he secures undisputed Parthian independence by attacking
and killing the former Macedonian satrap of Parthia, its recently-self-proclaimed
king, Andragoras. Hyrcania falls almost immediately afterwards.
The Seleucids seem to be able to hold onto the more southerly provinces,
such as Carmania and Gedrosia.
206
- 205 BC :
Seleucid ruler Antiochus III returns from his expedition into the
eastern regions by passing through the provinces of Arachosia, Drangiana,
and Carmania. He arrives in Persis in 205 BC and receives tribute
of five hundred talents of silver from the citizens of Gerrha, a
mercantile state on the east coast of the Persian Gulf. Having re-established
a strong Seleucid presence in the east which includes an array of
vassal states, Antiochus now adopts the ancient Achaemenid title
of 'great king', which the Greeks copy by referring to him as 'Basileus
Megas'.
![Map of Bactria and India 200 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-200BC_full.jpg)
The
kingdom of Bactria (shown in white) was at the height of its power
around 200-180 BC, with fresh conquests being made in the south-east,
encroaching into India just as the Mauryan empire was on the verge
of collapse, while around the northern and eastern borders dwelt
various tribes that would eventually contribute to the downfall
of the Greeks - the Sakas and Greater Yuezhi
167 BC :
Under Mithradates the Parthians rise from obscurity to become a
major regional power, although a precise chronology is not possible.
Their first expansion takes the former province of Aria from the
Greco-Bactrian kingdom. It seems possible that Aria (and possibly
a rebellious Drangiana too) had already been conquered once by the
Arsacids, with the Greco-Bactrians recapturing it, probably under
Euthydemus I Theos. During the reign of Eucratides I the Greco-Bactrians
are also engaged in warfare against the people of Sogdiana, showing
that they have lost control of that northern region too (and by
inference Ferghana).
The
other eastern provinces, all of which still appear to be in Seleucid
hands, must also fall to the Parthians very quickly after this -
including Carmania, Gedrosia, and Margiana - although firm evidence
to show a specific date appears to be lacking. Another date which
may be valid for these losses is 185 BC, when Seleucus IV loses
eastern Iran to Parthian expansion, but the fact that the Parthians
fail to expand out of their initial conquests until Mithradates
accedes makes this period a more likely one.
c.165
BC :
Defeated by the Xiongnu, the Greater Yuezhi are forced to evacuate
their lands on the borders of the Chinese kingdom. They begin a
migration westwards that triggers a slow domino effect of barbarian
movement.
![Zhang Qian, ambassador and explorer](HanWestern_ZhangQian01_full.jpg)
Zhang
Qian was a Chinese ambassador and explorer who, between 138-126
BC, met and documented many of the steppe tribes, and visited the
eventual Greater Yuezhi capital at Kian-she
140 - 130 BC :
Sakas have long been pressing against Bactria's borders. Now, following
a long migration from the borders of the Chinese kingdoms, the Greater
Yuezhi start to invade Bactria from Sogdiana to the north. Initially,
Saka elements who are already in Bactria become vassals to the Greater
Yuezhi.
At around the time of the death of the Indo-Greek King Menander
in 130 BC, the Greater Yuezhi overrun Bactria and end Greek rule.
Heliocles may possibly invade the western part of the Indo-Greek
kingdom, as there are strong suggestions that the Eucratids continue
to rule there, especially in the form of Heliocles' presumed son,
Lysias.
115
- 100 BC :
With Parthian territory having been harried for years by the Sakas,
King Mithridates II is finally able to take control of the situation.
First he defeats the Greater Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BC, and then
he defeats the Sakas in Parthia and Seistan (in Drangiana) around
100 BC. After their defeat, the Greater Yuezhi tribes concentrate
on consolidation in Bactria-Tokharistan while the Sakas are diverted
into Indo-Greek Gandhara. The western territories of Aria, Drangiana,
and Margiana would appear to remain Parthian dependencies.
![Map of Central Asia & India c.50 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-50BC_full.jpg)
By
the period between 100-50 BC the Greek kingdom of Bactria had fallen
and the remaining Indo-Greek territories (shown in white) had been
squeezed towards eastern Punjab. India was partially fragmented,
and the once tribal Sakas were coming to the end of a period of
domination of a large swathe of territory in modern Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and north-western India. The dates within their lands
(shown in yellow) show their defeats of the Greeks that had gained
them those lands, but they were very soon to be overthrown in the
north by the Kushans while still battling for survival against the
Satvahanas of India
c.AD 4 - 20 :
It is from this point that the Parthian empire, weakened by successive
civil wars and squabbling over the throne, gradually begins to fade,
breaking up into smaller kingdoms which remain loosely united for
two hundred years. Having assumed power and seen to the removal
of Phraates, Queen Musa is now replaced on the throne by her step-son,
Orodes. Within just a couple of years he too is despised by the
nobility and is assassinated.
The
nobility ask Rome to return one of their hostage princes, but they
also despise Vonones when he arrives for being a 'slave' (their
term for those held as hostages). Only the accession of Artabanus
III around AD 10 restores any sense of stability to the empire...
but then he loses Gedrosia to a vassal who founds a dynasty known
as the Pahlavas.
Indo-Parthians
/ Pahlavas / Suren Kingdom :
The
Kushans had emerged as a powerful component of the Greater Yuezhi
confederation, sweeping to dominance over large areas of southern
Central Asia and neighbouring South Asia. Their power towards the
west was checked by the Indo-Parthians, or Pahlavas. Of an Indo-Iranian
ancestry which they shared with the Kushans, the Indo-Parthians
had their origins in territory within modern Iran. The first Indo-Parthian
monarch, Gondophares, was a vassal of the Parthian Arsacids, governing
territory of theirs deep into the southern fringes of Central Asia.
With the empire fragmenting over the course of several decades,
he declared his independence from it and ventured eastwards to establish
his own kingdom in present day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern
India, sharing a degree of their domination of the region with the
Indo-Scythians, who still remained seemingly independent in their
Kshaharata strongholds around Gujarat. The arrival of the Indo-Parthians
seems to have taken the prize of Kashmir from Indo-Scythian hands
though.
Information, and especially dating, for the Indo-Parthians is hard
to come by, some of it being provided by numismatic evidence only.
For that reason alone the dating used here is often approximate
and uncertain. The prime capital during the height of the kingdom
was Taxila (now in Pakistan), former capital of the Persian satrapy
or province of Thatagush, although generally it seems to have formed
part of the much larger satrapy of Gadara. The nearby Jandial temple
complex is thought to be a Zoroastrian fire temple of the Indo-Parthian
period. During the kingdom's decline, Kabul (of the satrapy of Paropamisus)
or Purushpura (present day Peshawar in Pakistan) seem to have been
favoured.
Although
there seems to be no other evidence to back it up, Gondophares has
been linked to the House of Suren within the Parthian empire (by
Ernst Herzfeld). This was an important noble house whose members
were often responsible for crowning the Arsacid king. No more than
two generations prior to Gondophares, a Parthian cavalry commander
by the name of Surena of the same house had been responsible for
inflicting a catastrophic defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of
Carrhae, so it was certainly a name to be reckoned with. It would
seem to be this potential family link which is responsible for some
map-makers showing the Indo-Parthian territories under the label
'Suren Kingdom'.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Abhijit
Rajadhyaksha, from Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture
(c.326 BC to c.300 AD), Satyendra Nath Naskar, from Das Haus
Sūrēn von Sakastan, Ernst Emil Herzfeld (Ed, Archćologische
Mitteilungen aus Iran, I, Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1929), from The
Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M Rosenfield (University
of California Press, 1967), from Cultural and Religious Heritage
of India: Christianity, Suresh K Sharma & Usha Sharma (Eds),
from The Final Nail in the Coffin of Azes II, Robert Senior
(Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society No 197, 2008), from
Indo-Scythian Coins and History IV, Robert Senior (CNG, 2006),
from Life of Apollonius Tyana, Philostratus, from On the
Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kushana World, Doris Srinivasan
(BRILL, 2007), and from External Link: Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
c.AD
10 :
The Indo-Greek kingdom disappears under Indo-Scythian pressure.
It seems to be Rajuvula, the Saka kshatrapa of Mathura, who
invades what is virtually the last free Indo-Greek territory in
the eastern Punjab, and kills the Greek ruler, Strato II and his
son. Pockets of Greek population probably remain for some centuries
under the subsequent rule of the Kushans and Indo-Parthians. By
now the Indo-Parthians under Gondophares already seem to have captured
Kashmir from the Indo-Scythians, relieving them of an important
prize.
c.AD
20 - 50 :
Gondophares (I) :
Parthian vassal who declared independence.
c.20 :
With the Parthian empire gradually fracturing and collapsing, Gondophares
ventures east into recently-captured territory where he establishes
an independent Indo-Parthian kingdom in what is now Afghanistan.
His kingdom stretches from Arachosia and Gedrosia to northern India,
perhaps also with territory within Drangiana. Despite various efforts,
Parthian King Artabanus is unable to restore these Indo-Parthians
to Parthian control. Gondophares does not rule a single unitary
kingdom, however. His authority involves the cooperation of a number
of lesser figures, many of whom had been regional satraps under
Parthian or Saka control. This seem to include the Apracarajas of
the Bajaur area, the aforementioned 'Great Satrap' of Saka-controlled
Mathura, Rajavula (floruit c.AD10), and Zeionises, Saka satrap
of Kashmir and Chuksa in north-western India (floruit c.10
BC-AD 10).
![Gondophares Pahlava coin](Pahlava_Coins01_full.jpg)
This
photo illustrates both sides of a coin issued by Gondophares showing
the Greek goddess Nike, and legends in both Greek and Kharoshthi,
clearly demonstrating the powerful influence of Greek culture in
the region even after the collapse of the last Greek kingdom
Shortly
afterwards, Kujula Kadphises founds the Kushan empire in Bactria-Tokharistan
and seizes a long corridor of territory which stretches to the middle
Amu Darya. This has the deliberate effect of creating a barrier
around Sogdiana, which is then isolated for almost three hundred
years. It would seem to be during this period that Gondophares briefly
holds power over a great many of the diminished Sakas, also counting
Kshatrapa Sodasa of Mathura as a vassal (a successor of Rajavula).
c.30 - 50? :
A somewhat remarkable story which is usually ascribed to the reign
of Gondophares I is a visit to the kingdom by the Judean St Thomas
the Apostle. He would seem to use established trade routes to reach
India, although it would have to be north-western India for his
interaction with Gondophares. He is recruited as a carpenter to
serve at the court of the king who is named as 'Gudnaphar' in surviving
texts.
Chapters
2 and 3 of The Acts of Thomas show him embarking on a sea
voyage to India, while Chapter 17 describes his time in India. He
establishes many converts to Christianity, including members of
royal families, passes into a neighbouring kingdom, suffers martyrdom
there (at the hands of an unidentified King Mazdai), and is buried
there. His remains are later transferred to Edessa in Mesopotamia
where they are venerated.
c.30
- 80 :
The Kushan ruler, Kadphises, subdues the Sakas and establishes his
kingdom in Bactria and the valley of the River Oxus (the Amu Darya).
This means defeating the Indo-Parthians and successfully recapturing
the main areas of their kingdom, which include Gandhara. The Indo-Parthians
survive in northern India and Pakistan, mainly Sakastan (former
Saka territory) and Arachosia, with perhaps tendrils of territory
reaching into Gedrosia and even Gandhara where a Greek-speaking
Indo-Greek king of Taxila named Phraotes is met by the Greek philosopher,
Apollonius of Tyana, somewhere close to AD 46.
![Kadphises I coin from Tokharistan](Kushans_Coins01_full.jpg)
This
photo illustrates a Kadphises I coin which was discovered in the
Bactria-Tokharistan region and which has on it a corrupt Greek legend
c.50 - 65 :
Abdagases I : Nephew.
Possibly retained much of his uncle's territory.
c.AD 50 - 65 :
Sanabares starts out as the Parthian satrap of Margiana and, being
an eastern Parthian, is sometimes included as one of the rebellious
Indo-Parthian rulers despite being located well north and west of
the main Indo-Parthian territories.
At
some point he rebels against the weak Parthian king during a period
in which the throne is witnessing a constant succession of incumbents
and anyone who is a member of the Arsacid family may mount their
own claim if they have enough backing. At his satrapal capital of
Merv, Sanabares starts minting his own coins around AD 50, with
these coins being the only clear indication of his rebellion in
terms of historical sources. It takes until AD 65 before the latest
Parthian king in the west, Vologeses I, can restore central authority
in Margiana, at least to an extent.
fl
c.60 :
Satavastres : Co-ruler
or dominant in one region only?
fl c.70 :
Sarpedones / Gondophares II : Adopted
the name Gondophares. Ruled for only a short time?
c.70 :
Sarpedones succeeds as ruler of the kingdom and adopts the name
Gondophares. His rule is not nearly so certain as that of his more
illustrious predecessor, however. He may not even be the sole ruler,
with Abdagases perhaps still ruling areas towards the west. Issues
of his coinage are somewhat fragmented, appearing in Arachosia,
eastern Punjab (a region which could be included in the former satrapy
of Northern Indus), and Sindh, all towards the south and east of
the Indo-Parthian territories.
![Sarpedones coin](Pahlava_Coins02_full.jpg)
Shown
here are both sides of a coin issued during the rule of Sarpedones
(Gondophares II), with him diademed and draped on the left and the
goddess Nike standing on the right
fl c.70 :
Orthagnes / Orthagnes-Gadana : Also
known as Gondophares III Gadana.
c.70 - c.77? :
Orthagnes, who renames himself Gondophares III Gadana, may also
rule only parts of the kingdom, with Abdagases now dominant towards
the east. However, his coins also appear in Arachosia and eastern
Punjab, just like those of Sarpedones, suggesting that he succeeds
Sarpedones. In turn he is succeeded by his son while Abdagases is
succeeded by Sases.
fl
c.77 :
Ubouzanes : Son.
Known from numismatic evidence only
fl c.85 :
Sases / Gondophares IV Sases : Nephew
of Aspavarma of the Apracarajas.
c.85 :
Sases would appear to succeed Abdagases in many of the latter's
territories. He is opposed by (or at least is contemporary with)
Orthagnes and his son, Ubouzanes, for an unknown period of time,
but Sases himself is claimed by Robert Senior as reigning for at
least twenty-six years, perhaps around AD 65-91 or later.
fl
c.90 :
Abdagases II : Same
as Agata of Sindh? Outlasted Pacores?
c.90 - 100 :
Abdagases is another relatively insignificant Indo-Parthian ruler,
with very little numismatic evidence to point to anything other
than a brief reign of little consequence. A coin found in Sindh
names one Agata, possibly a corruption of his name or possibly another
minor rival. The Indo-Parthians are rapidly declining now, as can
be seen around AD 100 when the neighbouring Kushans capture former
Indo-Greek Arachosia from them.
![Kadphises I coin from Tokharistan](Kushans_Coins01_full.jpg)
This
photo illustrates a Kushan coin of Kadphises I which was discovered
in the Bactria-Tokharistan region when the Kushan took control from
the declining Indo-Parthians
c.100 - 135 :
Pacores / Pakores : Only in Drangiana & Gandhara.
Blessed
with a full Greek education and able to speak Greek fluently (showing
a continuation of strong Greek influence in the region), Pacores
is the last king with any real power. However, even that does not
extend into former core Indo-Parthian territories in Arachosia and
Sindh.
One
or more more Indo-Parthian kings follow him but in diminished circumstances,
and virtually unknown to history - possibly Abdagases II also outlasts
him but he continues to stamp his coins with his name while the
other or others do not. (Pacores' reign has been pushed back into
the first century AD by Robert Senior in his own dating series which
is largely based on numismatic evidence.)
c.135
:
? : Known
from numismatic evidence only.
c.140? :
By this date, if not before, the last Indo-Parthians are conquered
by the Kushans, even the minor, unnamed Indo-Parthian kings. Indo-Parthians
also remain in some of the areas that they have conquered in the
past. Around this time, Rudradaman I of the Western Kshatrapas divides
his empire into provinces so that they are easier to administer.
The Girnar records show that an Indo-Parthian amatya (governor)
by the name of Suvisakha is placed in charge of the administration
of Ananta-Surastra. In the third century the Kushans are in turn
largely conquered by the Sassanids, essentially restoring Gedrosia
to a form of Persian empire control.
![Indo-Scythians](Indo-Scythians01_full.jpg)
Typical
Indo-Scythians in India, still the notable horse-borne warriors
of their Indo-European heritage but by now greatly imbued with Indian
cultural influences
Today,
Gedrosia is better known as Baluchistan, after a people who seem
to have arrived in the tenth century AD following the Islamic invasion
of the region. There is the chance that 'Baluchistan' is based on
the Indo-Iranian name 'badlaut', a development of a possible Persian
name, 'uadravati', which in theory could be the origin of the Greek
'Gedrosia'. The theory remains somewhat contentious though. Modern
Baluchistan is divided, with about one third of it in Iran, and
the rest, the eastern sections, forming a large part of southern
Pakistan.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsFarEast/AsiaGedrosia.htm