CHORASMIA
/ TRANSOXIANA
Incorporating
the Attasii & Chorasmii, and also Aryana Vaejah :
An ancient and fairly amorphous region, Transoxiana was the
home to the oldest series of states in Central Asia. It was generally
described as being located in and around the river basin of the
lower Amu Darya (the River Oxus) where this empties into the Aral
Sea, and in the far reaches of north-eastern Persia. Its territory
varied greatly depending on who was ruling it, but at its height
it stretched into most of what is now Afghanistan, eastern Persia,
central Turkmenistan and southern Kyrgyzstan, plus central and southern
Uzbekistan and all of Tajikistan (which together made up the core
of ancient Transoxiana). The name now belongs to an eastern province
in modern Iran and a region in north-western Uzbekistan.
Transoxiana serves as the crossroads between Central Asia, South
Asia, and the Near East. The cities of Bukhara and Samarkand were
often included in the region, which could also encompass a large
number of other such cities. The Kel-teminar culture began the process
of climbing towards civilisation from around 6000 BC. The first
millennium BC satrapy of Chorasmia generally formed the western
section of this region. The name received its first historical mention
in the Avesta. It was bounded by the Kizil Kum Desert to
the north-east, in the corner formed by the meeting between the
Syr Darya (the River Jaxartes or Iaxartes) and the Aral Sea, and
the Kara Kum Desert between the Oxus and the Caspian Sea.
Three groups of Indo-Europeans were identified by ancient authors
as being inhabitants in or around Chorasmia is the later first millennium
BC. One of these were the Saka Tigrakhauda who occupied open grasslands
around the Aral Sea, in modern south-western Kazakhstan. The pointed
caps they wear would be sized according to seniority, with the tallest
being reserved for the chieftain. This group of Sakas has been linked
to the Massagetae of Strabo, who bordered the region to the north
in the sixth century BC. However, it seems highly likely that the
Massagetae were Scythians of a sort, and a distinction is drawn
in ancient records between Scythians and Saka. Strabo also identified
the Attasii and the Chorasmii (Chorasmians or Choramnians)
of Chorasmia as Massagetae, making them sub-groups of the main Massagetae
collective. Athenaios places the Chorasmii to the east of the Persian
satrapy of Parthawa. The earliest known rulers in Transoxiana are
placed in the 600s BC, but these are based on an oral history which
was only written down much later. Then Chorasmia (and most of Transoxiana)
was conquered by the Persians.
Aryana
Vaejah (or Airyanem Vaejah) translates as the 'expanse of the
Aryans'. It was part of the core homeland of the early Indo-Iranians
in the late second millennium and early first millennium BC. Its
precise location in historical terms is extremely uncertain. In
the first chapter of the Vendidad (or Videvdat, a
collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta)
is a listing of sixteen countries, with Aryana Vaejah lying to the
north of these. If the Indo-Iranian land of Tūr and the later
kingdom of Turan can be taken as the northern heartland of Indo-Iranian
territory, and Ariana the southern heartland, then Aryana Vaejah
could be equated with Chorasmia to the north and west of them. James
Darmesteter in his translation of the Avesta states that it lay
beside Azerbaijan, which is acceptable if it is on the eastern side,
meaning that it was on the other side of the Caspian Sea. Bahram
Farahvashi, Nasser Takmil Homayoun, and Elton L Daniel all place
it in Chorasmia. Controversially, it has also been located at the
heart of the sixteen countries rather than on their edge.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward
Dawson, from Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus:
Books 11-12, Volume 1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John Yardley,
& Waldemar Heckel, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook
(1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from
The Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, Third Edition (1970-1979),
from Kharazm: What do I know about Iran? Nasser Takmil Homayoun
(2004), from The History of Iran, Elton L Daniel (2001),
and from External Links: the Ancient History Encyclopaedia
(dead link), and Zoroastrian Heritage, K E Eduljee, and Talessman's
Atlas (World History Maps), and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and The Deipnosophists,
Athenaeus (C D Yonge, Ed), and Sacred Books of the East, James Darmesteter
(1898), now available online via Avesta - Zoroastrian Archives,
Joseph H Peterson, and the works of Bahrām Farahvai (Encyclopaedia
Iranica), and Hystaspes (Encyclopaedia Britannica).)
c.2200
- 1700 BC :
An
indigenous Bronze Age culture emerges in Central Asia between modern
Turkmenistan and down towards the Oxus, the somewhat nebulous region
known as Transoxiana. It is known as the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological
Complex, or Oxus Civilisation (centred on the later provinces of
Bactria and Margiana). Indo-European tribes which have not taken
part in the exodus to the west or south soon integrate themselves
into it.
![The Karakum burial with a valuable horse sacrifice added](Prehistory_Karakum02_full.jpg)
This
king's tomb in the Indo-European settlement in the Karakum (modern
Turkmenistan) contains a valuable horse to accompany him into the
afterlife
2000
- 1700 BC :
Climate
change from around 2000 BC onwards greatly affects this civilisation,
denuding it of water as the rains decline. The people are forced
to migrate away, abandoning many of their cities. Indo-Iranian groups
become dominant here, and over time some of their descendants enter
Iran to found states such as that of the Mannaeans, the Median empire,
and early Persia. Some go even farther even earlier to form the
Mitanni empire. Others cross the rivers of what is now Afghanistan
and the Hindu Kush mountains and enter India between 1700-1500 BC.
They eventually form their own kingdoms there such as Magadh, plus
Kaling, and the Kaurav state.
fl
588 BC :
Vishtāsp
/ Hystaspes / Gushtasp : Zoroastrian ruler of Aryana Vaejah.
Known by several variations of his name - including Kay Wishtaspa
(with kay or kai being an Indo-Iranian term for 'king')
or 'Vishtaspa' without any accented letters - Vishtāspa is
Zoroaster's earliest kingly supporter. Having thrown him into prison
for challenging the established priestly order, the king subsequently
releases him after he heals the king's favourite horse. Then he
converts to Zoroastrianism and becomes an enthusiastic supporter.
Several other kings also convert in light of this development.
![Map of Central Asia & India c.700 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-700BC_full.jpg)
Following
the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations
and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC,
Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions
- Tūr (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming
the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering
India (green)
c.546
- 540 BC :
The defeat of the Medes opens the floodgates for Cyrus the Great
with a wave of conquests, beginning in the west from 549 BC but
focussing towards the east of the Persians from about 546 BC. Eastern
Iran falls during a more drawn-out campaign between about 546-540
BC, which may be when Maka is taken (presumed to be the southern
coastal strip of the Arabian Sea). Further eastern regions now fall,
namely Arachosia, Aria, Bactria, Carmania, Chorasmia, Drangiana,
Gandhar, Gedrosia, Hyrcania, Margiana, Parthia, Saka (at least part
of the broad tribal lands of the Sakas), Sogdiana (with Ferghana),
and Thatagush - all added to the empire, although records for these
campaigns are characteristically sparse.
Persian
Satraps of Uwarazmiy (Chorasmia) :
Conquered in the mid-sixth century BC by Cyrus the Great, the region
of Chorasmia was added to the Persian empire. Before that it was
populated largely by Indo-Iranian tribal groups, and especially
by the Chorasmii tribe, while the kingdom of Aryana Vaejah existed
within the region in the early sixth century. Under the Persians
it was formed into an official satrapy or province which, according
to the Behistun inscription of Darius the Great, was called Uwarazmiy
or Uvārazmī (Chorasmia is a Greek mangling of the name).
The location of the capital is uncertain - two locations seem to
have provided this function, at the first century AD Topraq Qala
(Toprak Qala) to the north-west of Bostan which is more likely to
have been a summer residence, and at Dzanbas Qala. In fact when
the first of these was at the height of its use the capital is known
to have been at Axsha-Xan qala, fourteen kilometres to its south-west
- a city that may once have been called Darg'ash. None of that helps
with an Achaemenid-era capital though - but Herodotus mentions Uwarazmiy
and Parthawa together in a description of the taxes under Darius
I and in a catalogue of army units under Xerxes, raising the possibility
that the satrapy was in fact ruled from Parthawa.
These eastern regions of the new-found empire were ancestral homelands
for the Persians. They formed the Indo-Iranian melting pot from
which the Parsua had migrated west in the first place to reach Persis.
There would have been no language barriers for Cyrus' forces and
few cultural differences. Although details of his conquests are
relatively poor, he seemingly experienced few problems in uniting
the various tribes under his governance. He was the first to exert
any form of imperial control here, although his campaign may have
been driven partially by a desire to recreate the semi-mythical
kingdom of Turan in the land of Tūr, but now under Persian
control. Curiously the Persians had little knowledge of what lay
to the north of their eastern empire, with the result that Alexander
the Great was less well-informed about the region than earlier Ionian
settlers on the Black Sea coast had been.
The main satrapy of Uwarazmiy was one of those more unusual provinces
in which nomads were governed by indigenous rulers. At the time
of Alexander the territory largely coincided with the expanse of
the Karakum Desert and covered roughly a rhombus-shaped area, which
in the north-east was separated from the territory of the Massagetae
by the River Oxus (the Amu Daryā). To the north-west the old
Oxus branch, the Uzboy, marked the boundary. From the eastern corner
of the rhombus near modern Charjuy in Turkmenistan, the border must
have run south-west toward the Hyrcanian border, which it followed
west and north-west until it reached the Uzboy again.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian
of Nicomedia, from Farāmarz, the Sistāni Hero: Texts
and Traditions of the Farāmarznāme and the Persian
Epic Cycle, Marjolijn van Zutphen, from Ctesias' Persica
in its Near Eastern Context, Matt Waters, from Alexander
The Great: In the Realm of Evergetǽs, Reza Mehrafarin,
and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Iranica, and Topraq
Qala, and The Geography of Strabo (Loeb Classical Library Edition,
1932), and The Natural History, Pliny the Elder (John Bostock, Ed),
and Livius.org.)
c.546
- 540 BC :
During
his campaigns in the east, Cyrus the Great initially takes the northern
route from Persis towards Bakhtrish to reassure or subdue the provinces.
This route probably involves the 'militaris via' by Rhagai to Parthawa.
At some point he takes the more difficult southern route, destroying
Capisa along the way (possibly Kapisa on the Koh Daman plain to
the north of Kabul - which is possibly also the Kapishakanish named
by the Behistun inscription as a fortress in Harahuwatish).
![Cyrus the Great](Persia_CyrusGreat_01_full.jpg)
Cyrus
the Great freed the Indo-Iranian Parsua people from Median domination
to establish a nation that is recognisable to this day, and an empire
that provided the basis for the vast territories that were later
ruled by Alexander the Great
515
BC :
One of the three Saka 'nations' is that of the Saka Paradraya. This
name breaks down into 'para' and 'draya', the first part meaning
'across' and the latter almost certainly being 'darya' or 'river'.
When Persian ruler Darius the Great boasts of the limits of his
empire he gives as the north-eastern corner the 'Sakaibish tyaiy
para Sugdam' - the Sakas across/beyond Suguda, on the other side
of the River Tanais (otherwise known as the Jaxartes/Iaxartes or
Syr Darya, which forms the boundary between Suguda and Scythia).
If these Saka do not border Uwarazmiy directly then another group,
the Saka Tigrakhauda, may do.
479
- 465 BC :
Xerxes apparently adds two new regions to the Persian empire during
his reign, neither of which are very descriptive or clear in their
location. The first is Daha, from 'daai' or 'daae', meaning 'men',
perhaps in the sense of brigands. Daha or Dahae would appear to
be the region on the eastern flank of the Caspian Sea, bordered
by the Saka Tigraxauda to the north, and the satrapies of Mergu,
Uwarazmiy, and Verkâna to the north-east, south-east, and south
respectively. It contains a confederation of three tribes, the Parni,
the Pissuri, and the Xanthii.
360s/350s
BC :
Artaxerxes II is occupied fighting the 'revolt of the satraps' in
the western part of the empire. Nothing is known of events in the
eastern half of the Persian empire at this time, but no word of
unrest is mentioned by Greek writers, however briefly. Given the
newsworthiness for Greeks of any rebellion against the Persian king,
this should be enough to show that the east remains solidly behind
the king. It seems that all of the empire's troubles hinge on the
Greeks during this period.
![Artaxerxes II of Persia](Persia_ArtaxerxesII_01_full.jpg)
Artaxerxes
II of Persia is immortalised in relief at the entry to his tomb
in Persepolis, having survived a reign that began with a series
of revolts and included war against the troublesome Greeks (External
Link: Creative Commons Licence 2.0 Generic)
There
are suggestions, however, that Uwarazmiy has edged away from direct
control to establish its own kingship. This is uncertain though,
and could be little more than a late claim of independence while
Alexander the Great is taking control of eastern regions in 330-329
BC.
fl
c.340s? :
Phrataphernes
: Satrap? Probably native noble. Later in Parthawa &
Verkâna.
?
- 330 BC :
Pharasmanes
: Son. Satrap. 'King of the Chorasmians'. Retained.
330
BC :
In 330 BC Suguda becomes part of the Greek empire despite the efforts
of Bessus, self-styled 'king of Asia', to retain at least some of
the Persian territories. His claim is legal, since Bakhtrish is
traditionally commanded by the next-in-line to the throne, but Persia
has already been lost and his loose collection of eastern allies
provides nothing more than a sideshow to the main event - the fall
of Achaemenid Persia. Still, it takes Alexander the Great two more
years to fully conquer the region.
The
writer Arrian mentions the arrival of Pharasmanes, so-called king
of the Chorasmians (a title designed to increase Alexander's own
position as a conqueror of kings), with a cavalry force of some
fifteen hundred men. The Chorasmians follow a wait-and-see policy
until Alexander reaches Bactra, after which Pharasmanes acknowledges
him as his overlord. He offers to guide Alexander to the Black Sea
should he wish to campaign there, although Alexander declines the
offer. Instead he concludes a 'friendly pact' with Pharasmanes and
allows him to remain in his post.
Argead
Dynasty in Chorasmia :
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's
death in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in
310 BC. Alexander's successors held no real power, being mere figureheads
for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire.
Following that latter period and during the course of several wars,
Chorasmia was left in the hands of the Seleucid empire from 312
BC.
(Additional information from A Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography and Mythology, William Smith (London, 1873).)
330
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : King of Macedonia. Conquered
Persia.
323
- 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander
the Great.
317
- 310 BC :
Alexander IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander the
Great and Roxana.
330
- 328 BC :
Pharasmanes
: Retained as the Achaemenid satrap of Uwarazmiy.
328
- 321 BC :
Amyntas
Nikolaos : Greek satrap of Chorasmia, Bactria, & Sogdiana.
328
- 321 BC :
Scythaeus
: Greek satrap of Chorasmia, Bactria, & Sogdiana.
323
- 321 BC :
Philip
/ Philippus : Greek satrap of Chorasmia, Bactria, &
Sogdiana, then Parthia.
321
BC :
With
Philip being reassigned to Parthia, his replacement in the east
is Stasanor the Solian, former satrap of Aria and Drangiana. This
new satrap is the brother to Stasander, his replacement in Aria
and Drangiana. Perhaps he also has more of a focus towards the Northern
Indus territories than the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, as
later suggested by events. His territory initially extends as far
north as Ferghana, which contains the city of Alexandria Eschate
('the Furthest'), while Stasander also has ambitions.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
In
the 320s BC, the Persians and the Greeks under Alexander place the
Amyrgian Sakas beyond Sogdiana, across the River Tanais (otherwise
known as the Iaxartes, Jaxartes, or Syr Darya, which forms the boundary
between Sogdiana and Scythia). This is thanks to their having encountered
them after crossing Sogdiana and the Syr Darya in the approximate
region of Alexandria Eschate. It is generally accepted that they
control all of Ferghana and the Alai valley. Indeed, they may have
been relocated onto the plain following their conquest by the Persians.
321
- 312 BC :
Stasanor
the Solian : Greek satrap of Chorasmia to Sogdiana, &
Nth Punjab (316 BC).
316
- 312 BC :
The
Wars of the Diadochi decide how Alexander the Great's empire
is carved up between his generals, but the period is very confused,
especially in the east. These provinces appear to be invaded and
controlled by the Antigonids for a period, with General Antigonus
being responsible for the death of Eudamus. However, at some point
in 316 BC, Stasanor the Solian, satrap of Chorasmia, Bactria, and
Sogdiana (with Ferghana) seizes the Northern Indus while his brother
seizes Parthia. Clearly the two are either working in unison with
Seleucus of Babylonia from the beginning or are attempting to stamp
their own independent authority on much of the east. Unfortunately,
Stasander is removed from office in 315 BC.
312
- 306 BC :
Bactria
is taken by the Seleucids around 312 BC. During the break-up of
the empire, it appears that parts of the area become independent,
but much of it remains under the control of the Greek satrap of
Bactria and Sogdiana and, after 256 BC, the kings of Bactria.
Macedonian
Chorasmia :
Middle Persian Xwarāsān.
The location of the capital is somewhat confused. Two locations
seem to have provided this function, these being the first century
AD Topraq Qala (Toprak Qala) to the north-west of Bostan which is
more likely to have been a summer residence, and Dzanbas Qala. In
fact when the first of these was at the height of its use the capital
is known to have been at Axsha-Xan qala, fourteen kilometres to
its south-west - a city that may once have been called Darg'ash.
Topraq Qala continued to be used until the sixth century, although
the palace was briefly abandoned during the fourth century (see
details, below), and was later restored and possibly used as an
administrative centre for the associated city. In the medieval period
the site was occupied by squatters until the Mongols invaded in
the early thirteenth century.
(Additional information from The Cambridge History of Iran,
Volume 3, E Yarshater (Ed), and from External Link: Topraq
Qala.)
c.294
- 293 BC :
A former general under Seleucid rulers Seleucus I Nicator and Antiochus
I Soter, Demodamas later serves twice as satrap of Bactria and Sogdiana.
During this time he undertakes military expeditions across the Syr
Darya to explore the lands of the Sakas, repopulating Alexandria
Eschate ('the furthest', modern Khojend) in the process following
its earlier destruction by barbarians.
c.165
BC :
Defeated
by the Xiongnu, the Greater Yuezhi are forced to evacuate their
lands on the borders of the Chinese kingdom. They begin a migration
westwards that triggers a slow domino effect of barbarian movement.
140
- 130 BC :
Sakas have long been pressing against Bactria's borders. Now, following
a long migration from the borders of the Chinese kingdom, the Greater
Yuezhi start to invade Bactria from Sogdiana to the north. Initially,
Saka elements who are already in Bactria become vassals to the Greater
Yuezhi.
![Map of Bactria and India 200 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-200BC_full.jpg)
The
kingdom of Bactria (shown in white) was at the height of its power
around 200-180 BC, with fresh conquests being made in the south-east,
encroaching into India just as the Mauryan empire was on the verge
of collapse, while around the northern and eastern borders dwelt
various tribes that would eventually contribute to the downfall
of the Greeks - the Sakas and Greater Yuezhi
At
around the time of the death of the Indo-Greek King Menander in
130 BC, the Greater Yuezhi overrun Bactria and end Greek rule. Heliocles
may possibly invade the western part of the Indo-Greek kingdom,
as there are strong suggestions that the Eucratids continue to rule
there, especially in Heliocles' presumed son, Lysias.
After Bactria's destruction and occupation by the Greater Yuezhi,
the region is later inhabited by Zoroastrian Indians who use Aramaic
script. Sogdiana is for the most part independent.
115
- 100 BC :
With
Parthian territory having been harried for years by the Sakas, King
Mithridates II is finally able to take control of the situation.
First he defeats the Greater Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BC, and then
he defeats the Sakas in Parthia and around Seistan (in Drangiana)
around 100 BC. After their defeat, the Greater Yuezhi tribes concentrate
on consolidation in Bactria-Tokharistan while the Sakas are diverted
into Indo-Greek Gandhar. The western territories of Aria, Drangiana,
and Margiana would appear to remain Parthian dependencies.
c.AD
112 - 132 :
Kushan
ruler Kanishk expands his empire even further. He annexes the various
regions of India; Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kashmir, Malwa, Rajputana,
Saurashtra, and extends his rule as far as Khotan (southern India).
He also captures Transoxiana (modern Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan).
He makes Purushpura (present day Peshawar in Pakistan) his capital
and appoints kshatrapas to rule his vast territories, including
in the former territory of the Sakas (Saka officials remain in office
in Mathura). He may also use Greek script on his earlier coins,
inherited from influences in former Bactria which may still be evident
in his day.
c.350/375
:
The
style of regional coins suddenly changes in the second half of the
fourth century, or towards the end of it. Probably not coincidentally,
the palace at Topraq Qala is briefly abandoned during the fourth
century. It is later restored and possibly used as an administrative
centre for the associated city, but something clearly changes in
the fourth century.
Coins
which have imitated Greek types for over four centuries - especially
the tetradrachms of Euthydemus I, former Greek satrap of Sogdiana
- are no longer issued, being replaced with coins of a quite different
appearance. These are small silver coins with a head-and-shoulders
representation in the Transoxianan style of a ruler in a diadem
on the obverse, and on the reverse an altar with a blazing fire
and a circular legend in Sogdian in which only the title MR'Y can
be read. Similar coins are issued in copper. Both are ancestors
of a new generation of coins which are linked to Bukhara right up
to the seventh century (possibly due to the rise there of a ruling
elite which survives until the Islamic invasion).
500s
:
A class of Post-Hephthalite empire Alchon coins would seem to require
classification as a separate entity. They are distinguished by the
area of their influence outside north-western India. Among these,
two kings include a legend on their coins that reads 'the King of
the East'. This is particularly interesting since this legend connects
these Alchon kings both to later Turkic rulers of the region, including
the 'Tegin of Khorasan' and the later division of the Sassanid empire
into four distinctive (military) administrative divisions. One of
these divisions indeed receives the Middle Persian name of Xwarāsān,
generally shown in English texts as Khorasan, an exact parallel
of the Bactrian μιιρασανο
with the same meaning of 'the east'.
530s
- 540s :
The
significant setbacks experienced by the Sassanids in the latter
part of the fifth century - directly caused by the Hephthalites
- are a prime motivator for reforms that are undertaken by shahs
Kavad and Khosrow I. Most significantly, the creation of four major
defensive, and presumably administrative, zones in the Sassanid
administration is a direct response to the inefficiency of centralised
defence. The north-east and east of the empire are entrusted to
an Ispahbed of Khwarasan (Khwarasan being Chorasmia, while this
is the first time that 'Ispahbed' appears in history, meaning an
army chief).
552
:
The
Western khagans expand their dominion towards Chorasmia and Sogdiana,
right up against the borders of Persia's eastern territories.
![Map of Central Asia AD 550-600](Map_CentralAsia_AD600_full.jpg)
As
was often the case with Central Asian states that had been created
by horse-borne warriors on the sweeping steppelands, the Göktürk
khaganate swiftly incorporated a vast stretch of territory in its
westwards expansion, whilst being hemmed in by the powerful Chinese
dynasties to the south-east and Siberia's uninviting tundra to the
north
651
- 821 :
Large
areas of the territory (mostly western Afghanistan and large swathes
of Chorasmia) are conquered by the Islamic empire as it takes Sassanid
Iran, although Kabul remains independent as does neighbouring Zabulistan.
Governors, or emirs, are appointed to control the Islamic
emirate of Khorasan in the name of the caliph. A seemingly partial
occupation of Transoxiana by Tang dynasty China is effected in 659,
but is ended in 665.
Islamic
Emirate of Khorasan / Khurasan :
AD 651 - 821 :
Following the Islamic conquest of Sassanid Persia and its eastern
territories in Transoxiana, governors were put in place to command
this great, tumultuous region (although something of this reorganisation
may already have taken place under the Sassanids). Rather than maintain
a series of minor provinces which had existed in one form or another
since the initial Achaemenid conquest of the east under Cyrus the
Great, it would seem that the province of Chorasmia was now greatly
enlarged, becoming known as Greater Khorasan. This included many
of the old provinces within its territory, Aria and Margiana being
two of them. To govern the region, emirs were appointed by the caliph
in Syria during the seventh century.
The
name Khorasan was a direct inheritance from the Achaemenid empire.
The forces of Cyrus the Great took the region during a sweeping
campaign of acquisition across the southern parts of Central Asia
in the mid-sixth century BC. The western part of Transoxiana contained
an Indo-Iranian tribe called the Chorasmii, from which the Persian
province name of Uwarazmiy was formed (Chorasmia to the Greeks).
The initial 'u' seems to have softened (or was originally pronounced)
as a soft 'kh' sound so that kh-waraz-me could be pronounced
by its Islamic conquerors as khwarazam or khorasan.
Around AD 520 the Sassanids had created four major defensive, and
presumably administrative, zones in the east as direct response
to the inefficiency of centralised defence in the face of Hephthalite
attacks. The north-east and east of the empire were entrusted to
an Ispahbed of Khwarasan (Khwarasan being the Middle Persian version
of Uwarazmiy, while this was the first time that 'Ispahbed' appeared
in history, meaning an army chief).
(Additional information from The Secret History of Iran,
Hamad Subani, from King of the Seven Climes: A History of the
Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE), Khodadad Rezakhani
(Touraj Daryaee, Ed, Ancient Iran Series Vol IV, 2017), from
The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire,
R C Blockley (Francis Cairns, Oxford, 1983), and from External
Links: Zoroastrian Heritage, and The Silk Road.)
mid-650s
:
A
king of Kabul - seemingly unnamed - apparently faces off against
the young Islamic general, Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra, in an heroic
battle. Kabul's well-provisioned troops are able to hold their own
and the two leaders subsequently agree to peaceful coexistence.
Al-Muhallab later becomes governor of Khorasan (in 698).
666
:
Tarikh-e
Sistan of eleventh century Seistan provides an extensive account
of the wars of a Rutbil of Seistan and Zabulistan against the Muslim
conquerors of the region. These wars, starting with the confrontation
in Sakastan with Islam's Rabi' al-Harithi (Hārithī) in
666, continue well into the ninth century when another Rutbil is
defeated by Yaghub bin Laith, founder of the AsiaDrangiana.htm#Saffarids
of Seistan.
671
- 673 :
Rabi
ibn Ziyad al-Harithi : Umayyad governor of Greater Khorasan.
Formerly in Sakastan.
673
- ? :
Abdallah ibn Rabi : Son.
698
- ? :
Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra : Umayyad governor of Greater
Khorasan.
?
Yazid ibn al-Muhallab : Son.
704/705
- 716 :
Qutaiba
ibn Muslim : Umayyad governor of Greater Khorasan.
708/709
:
Qutaiba
ibn Muslim expels Vardan Khuda from Bukhara.
717
- 719 :
Al-Jarrah
ibn Abdallah : Umayyad governor of Greater Khorasan.
717
- 738 :
Sulu
of the Western Göktürk khaganate is claimed as being the founder
of the minor Türgish dynasty, a Turkic tribe (or tribes) that had
been subject to the khaganate but which now finds itself independent.
Based in Transoxiana after being moved there during the great days
of the khaganate, the Türgish now find themselves being defeated
alongside the Sogdians by invading Umayyad Arabs.
Sulu
is elected their leader in 717, and he marshals the Sogdian and
Türgish defences independent of Göktürk authority. Fighting a largely
hit-and-run-based war in the region's deserts, he enjoys a decade
of success, including victory at the Battle of the Defile in 731.
Unfortunately, internal politics ends his success when he is killed
in 737/737 by one of his own relatives. The Türgish splinter into
two factions.
![Early Turk warriors](Mongols_Gokturks05_full.jpg)
This
modern artist's impression shows three early Turkic warriors, from
left to right, a Göktürk armoured cavalryman, an Eastern Turk tribesman,
and a Türgish 'tarkan' champion
719
:
From
this date, the Abbasids begin to seek followers to their cause of
removing their sworn enemies, the Umayyad caliphs, from power. They
also target the supporters of the failed rebellion by al-Mukhtar
in 686.
c.738
:
The
son and successor of Burha Tegin of Kabul is from Kesar who, according
to scholars, must ascend the throne of Kabul shortly before 738,
although he is possibly a powerful viceroy who is based in the eastern
capital of Wayhind in Uddiyana. The coins carrying his name and
titles read 'Phromo Kesaro the Mighty (?) the King, the Lord', and
'From Kesar, His Majesty, the Lord, who smote the Arabs', in a countermark,
thereby showing his successes in fights against the Islamic empire.
It could be speculated that Phromo Kēsaro is either the same
as the Rutbil of the Islamic sources, or is the 'Kabulshah' (ruler
of Kabul) on whom the Rutbil, the possible series of local rulers
of Zabulistan, are relying for their continued fight against the
Muslim governors of Sakastan.
747
- 749 :
The
Abbasids under Abu Muslim begin an open revolt in Khorasan against
Umayyad rule. Khorasan quickly falls under their command and an
army is sent westwards. Kufa falls in 749 and in November the same
year Abu al-Abbas is recognised as caliph.
821
:
The
Tahirid emirs are established in Khorasan, which includes what is
now northern and western Afghanistan up to the borders of the kingdom
of Zabulistan, when the region is granted to them by the Abbasid
caliph, al-Mamun.
Tahirid
Emirs of Khorasan :
AD 821 - 873 :
The eastern province which included Persia and Khorasan lost Transoxiana
to the Samanids. Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun appointed Tahir ibn al-Hussein,
the successful commander of a campaign which had defeated the caliph's
main rival, as the new governor of Khorasan, beginning the Tahirid
period of rule in the east (sometimes shown as Tahrid). Tahir had
previously been governor, or wali, of Syria (815-821), but he effectively
declared independence in his new domains by failing to mention the
caliph during a sermon at Friday prayers in AD 822. Unfortunately,
the new emir died the following day.
821
- 822 :
Tahir
I ibn al-Hussein : General to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun.
Declared independence.
822
:
Despite
Tahir's apparent declaration of independence, upon his sudden death,
Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun appoints his son, Talha, to the post of
faithful governor of the eastern Persian lands.
822
- 828 :
Talha
: Son. Died.
828
- 830 :
Ali
ibn Tahir ibn al-Hussein : Brother. Deputy governor.
828
- 830 :
Ali
acts as deputy governor for his brother for the two years it takes
the latter to take up his office. After having succeeded his father
as governor of Syria he defeats the rebel, Nasr ibn Shabath between
824-826. Then he is sent to Egypt, where he successfully ends an
uprising led by Obeid Allah ibn al-Serri. In 829 he stops the Khurramite
Babak, and is then ordered to Khorasan by the Abbasid caliph to
put down the Kharijites, finally arriving in 830.
828
- 845 :
Abdullah
ibn Tahir ibn al-Hussein : Brother. Former wali of Syria
(821-822) & Egypt (826-827).
828
- 830 :
While in office, Abdullah takes steps to improve the strength of
the Samanids, his vassals in Transoxiana. In his role as governor
of the east, Abdullah also claims Tabaristan as a dependency and
insists that the tribute owed by Ispahbad Mazyar ibn Qarin, a recent
convert to Islam, to the caliph should pass through him. Mazyar
disagrees, planning to expand his domains, but in 839 he is captured
and executed, securing Tahirid control over Tabaristan.
845
- 862 :
Tahir
II : Son.
862
- 873 :
Muhammad
: Overthrown by the Saffarids.
873
- 900 :
For
many years, Muhammad continues to serve as nominal governor of Khorasan
while living in Persia. His brother, al Husayn briefly returns in
876, but the Tahirids are ousted by the Saffarids. For a quarter
of a century, Khorasan is governed from the Saffarid capital, but
in 900 they themselves are defeated by the Transoxianan Samanids
(former subjects of the Tahirids) and are reduced in territory to
Seistan in Persia, where they remain Samanid vassals. The Samanids
install their own governors in Khorasan.
?
- 995 :
Abu
'Abdallah Muhammad : Last Afrigid shah and Samanid vassal.
994
- 995 :
The Samanid ruler faces internal uprisings, and the Ghaznavid ruler
goes to his assistance. The rebels are defeated at Balkh and then
Nishapur, and Sebuktigin of Ghazni is granted the title 'Nasir ud-Din'
('Hero of the Faith'), while his son, Mahmud, is made governor of
a northern Khorasan that is removed from Samanid authority.
Emirs
of North Khwarazm (Khorezm / Khorasan) :
AD 995 - 1231 :
Usually under the influence of Persia, if not its direct control,
the emirate of Khwarazm (or Khwarezm) was initially centred on ancient
Samarkand and Bukhara. At its height, it extended to encompass almost
all of modern Iran (except the western border area), eastern Azerbaijan,
modern western Afghanistan, all of Turkmenistan, most of Uzbekistan,
western Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and the southern areas of Kazakhstan.
The
Islamicised name originates in the ancient region of Chorasmia,
which was occupied during the Achaemenid period by the Massagetae
and Sakas. Chorasmia encompassed both banks of the lower Amu Darya
(the River Oxus).
The
emirs (and later, shahs) had their capital at Urgench (pronounced
oorgyench), now Kunya-Urgench, the capital of Uzbekistan's
Khorezm region. The city became a major seat of Arabic learning
and a centre of agriculture and trade, but it was destroyed by the
Mongols in the early thirteenth century, partially rebuilt, and
then abandoned in the sixteenth century, following the Uzbek conquest
of the region. The largest number of Zoroastrian related ruins and
artefacts, including a dakhma, a Zoroastrian burial tower known
as a 'Tower of Silence', have been uncovered in Khwarezm.
The
first dynasty to rule this new emirate, freed in AD 900 from its
would-be Saffarid conquerors, was that of the Ma'umids, Turkic Yamanid
settlers of Turkestan who intermarried with the locals. One of their
number, a twelve year-old named Sebuktigin, was captured by a neighbouring
tribe and ended up being purchased by Alptigin, the governor of
Samanid Khorasan. Alptigin seized the eastern Afghan region of Ghazni
from the Samanid governor and established an independent Khorasanian
Sunni Muslim kingdom there. Sebuktigin was made a general and continued
in that role until his own accession. His own son was able to conquer
northern Khorasan from the Samanids and their vassal, the Afrigid
shah, and establish an emirate. Southern Khorasan remained forever
outside their control, however.
(Additional
information from The Secret History of Iran, Hamad Subani,
and from External Link: Zoroastrian Heritage.)
995
- 998 :
Yamin-ud-Dawlah
Mahmud : Governor. Son of Sebuktigin of Ghazni. King of
Ghazni (998-1030).
995
:
The
previous ruling Banu Iraq dynasty is overthrown in a coup. Areas
of Khorasan are united under the emirs of North Khwarazm, who gain
a level of autonomy from the weak Persian Buwayids.
997
- 998 :
Mahmud campaigns against the Qara-Khitaï in Central Asia, but is
ultimately defeated. The following year he lays successful claim
to the Ghaznavid throne itself. He hands North Khwarazm to his son,
Abu'l-Hasan.
998
- 1009 :
Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Ma'mun : Son. Governor under Yamin.
1009
- 1017 :
Abu'l-Abbas Ma'mun ibn Ma'mun : Brother. Governor under
Yamin.
1017
:
Abu'l-Harith Muhammad ibn Ali : Son of Abu'l-Hasan Ali.
Former governor under Yamin.
1017
- 1040 :
Khwarazm
is conquered by Yamin-ud-Dawlah Mahmud from his Ghaznavid base in
Southern Khorasan after the emir is killed in a rebellion, but it
is unclear if the entire emirate is subjugated. In 1040 the Ghaznavids
are defeated by Seljuq Turks at Dandanqan, and lose their western
territories, including Khwarazm and Seistan.
1017
- 1032 :
Altun Tash : Ghaznavid governor of Khwarazm.
1032
- 1035 :
Harun : Ghaznavid governor.
1035
- 1041 :
Ismail Khandan : Son. Ghaznavid governor.
1041
- 1042 :
Shah Malik ibn Ali : Ghaznavid governor.
1042
:
The
Seljuqs rule Khwarazm.
Chagri-Beg
: Nephew
of Alp Arslan. Seljuq sultan of Persia (1037-c.1060).
1077
- 1097 :
Anush
Tigin Gharchai
1097
:
Ekinchi ibn Qochqar
1097
:
Soon-to-be Seljuq sultan Ahmad Sanjar, rules in Khwarazm, before
taking the throne in Persia itself. Local governors manage the emirate
in his name.
1098
- 1128 :
Qutb
al-Din Muhammed / Arslan Tigin
1118
:
The
death of the Ghaznavid ruler, Masud, in 1115 had triggered a period
of instability in his empire to the east. Now Bahram Shah wins the
internecine fight with his brothers, but only as a vassal of the
Seljuqs.
1128
- 1156 :
Ala
al-Din Aziz / Shah Atsyz : Rebelled against the Seljuqs.
Defeated. Returned to vassal status.
1156
- 1172 :
Taj
al-Dunya Arslan : Son.
1157
:
Upon
the death of the long-lived Ahmad Sanjar, the Seljuq territories
break up into several smaller states. The rump of Seljuq territory
is Iraq, where they remained in power as the Khwarazm shahs conquer
the rest of Persia.
![Shah Taj al-Dunya Arslan](Uzbekistan_TajAl-DunyaArslan01_full.jpg)
Taj
al-Dunya Arslan, pictured here at the start of his reign (seated
on the throne, centre-right), was one of a long line of shahs of
this region of greater Persia until its conquest by the Mongols
1172
- 1193 :
Jalal
al-Dunya Sultanshah
1193
- 1200 :
Ala
al-Din Tekish / Tukush / Tekesh : Former Seljuq slave appointed
governor of Khwarazm.
1194
:
The
emirate gains independence from the Persian Seljuq Turks by overthrowing
them and occupying much of the rest of Greater Khorasan, including
Seistan.
1200
- 1220 :
Ala
ad Deen Muhammed II (ibn Tekesh) : Son. Died a fugitive
following the fall of Samarkand.
1205
- 1212 :
Khwarazm
rapidly expands its rule. In 1210 it takes Samarkand from the Qara-Khitaï
and this becomes the capital. By 1212 it rules from the Caspian
Sea to Bukhara and Samarkand, eliminating the Qara Khitai and controlling
all of modern Iran and, by 1213, Ghurid Southern Khorasan too.
1218
:
Tiring of the Chinese campaign, Mongol Great Khan Chingiz sends
his general, Chepe, westwards to overthrow the empire of the Qara-Khitaï
and annexe its territory. This defeat also opens the way towards
Mongol interaction with Khwarazm and Persia.
1220
- 1221 :
After
the shah decapitates the Mongol ambassador from Chingiz Khan, the
emirate is attacked twice by Chingiz Khan and the Golden Horde,
along with Ghurid Afghanistan. Khwarazm is reduced to its western
section covering northern Mesopotamia and western Persia. Bukhara
and then Samarkand are captured by the Mongols and chaos results,
with thousands being massacred or sold into slavery. Ala ad Deen
flees west and dies a fugitive.
1220
- 1231 :
Jalal
al-Din Mingburnu : Son.
1221
:
The
rise of Jalal al-Din Mingburnu poses a challenge for the Mongols.
The two sides come together at the Battle of the Indus and Jalal
ad-Din is defeated. Khwarazm is occupied between Samarkand and the
Indus, and Persia also falls. Jalal al-Din Mingburnu is an exile
for a time, but returns to reclaim a reduced Khwarazm which is based
around northern Mesopotamia, western Persia, and the lower Caucuses,
and is centred on modern Azerbaijan - the 'safe' side of the Caspian
Sea. From this point onwards, the bulk of Khwarazm is ruled by the
Il-Khans.
1225
:
The
Ismailis have a rival candidate of their own for the governorship
of Seistan - Uthman Shah bin Nasiruddin Uthman. They acquire support
from a Khwarazmian commander named Tajuddin Yinaltagin who is stationed
at Kirman. Yinaltagin arrives at Seistan in 1225 and defeats the
local forces but, instead of placing Uthman on the throne, Yinaltagin
secures it for himself for almost a decade.
1231
:
The
reduced shahdom has been flourishing for a decade since losing its
eastern territory, and has even conquered Georgia and Azerbaijan,
but now it is completely overrun by a renewed Mongol invasion. Control
of the shahdom is inherited by the Il-Khans in Persia while Transoxiana
passes to the Chaghatayids. Elements of forces from Khwarazm migrate
to Syria where they engage in the battles against the Crusaders
in Jerusalem, but also in politics against the Ayyubids in Damascus
and Egypt.
Mingburnu
also leaves behind a sizeable contingent of Shiite Turkic Afshari
tribesmen in his former territories in eastern Anatolia. They go
on to form the Karamanid emirate which staunchly opposes the Seljuq
Turks. The nascent Ottoman empire puts an end to them only for Timur
to resurrect them from his empire around Persia. Further Turkic
Afshari tribesmen had been settled in Diyar Bakir, later to emerge
as the Ak Qoyunlu White Sheep emirate.
Il-Khan
Khwarazm (Khorasan) :
AD 1221 - 1262? :
In Transoxiana in 1219-1221, the Mongols attacked the Khwarazm emirate
which controlled formerly-Seljuq Persia, and finally overran it
in 1221. When the descendents of Chingiz Khan divided up the Mongol
empire, the Il-Khans (as they became known) inherited Persia, eastern
Anatolia, and the bulk of Khwarazm, ruling from Baghdad. While they
did so, the Ottoman Turks focused on conquering and securing western
Anatolia and Byzantine Greece. The rulers were known by their traditional
Mongol title of khan.
The
Il-Khanate was officially founded by Hulagu in 1260, following the
death of Great Khan Mongke. It faired poorly at the start, struggling
with relatively mundane issues such as the economy but also with
an embarrassing defeat by the Mameluke Bahris of Egypt. However,
under Ghaza Il-Khan, the Il-Khanate regained its military superiority
and began an economical recovery that continued until the reign
of Abu Said. At its height, the khanate encompassed territory which
included modern eastern Turkey, Iran, Iraq, the Transcaucus, and
western Turkestan (an ill-defined region which included areas of
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), which formed the border with Mughulistan.
1221
- 1256 :
Tolui
: Son of Chingiz Khan. Governed Khwarazm & Persia in
his name.
1244
- 1245 :
Chagatai's death leaves the Chaghatayids weakened, and dominated
by the Mongol great khans. They appoint Chaghatayid khans as they
please. Although Transoxiana is considered part of the khanate's
territories, the governors of the cities there are appointed directly
by the great khan. This subservience to Karakorum lasts until the
accession of Alughu.
In
the same year, 1244, the forces of Khwarazm sack Christian Jerusalem,
and Sultan as Salih II Ayyub of Egypt allies himself with the
former emirate against Ismail of Damascus. At the Battle of La Forbie,
they defeat Ismail and Ayyub is able to reclaim the sultanate for
himself. The following year, Ayyub defeats Khwarazm itself for failing
to recognise him as its overlord.
1253
:
Hulegu begins a campaign which sees him enter the Islamic lands
of Mesopotamia on behalf of Mongol Great Khan Mongke. Ismailis (assassins)
have been threatening the Mongol governors of the western provinces,
so Mongke has determined that the Abbasid caliphs must be brought
to heel. Hulegu takes Khwarazm, and quickly establishes dominion
over Mosul.
![Hulegu Khan](Mongols_HuleguKhan01_full.jpg)
Inheriting
the Persian section of the Mongol empire through his father, Tolui,
Hulegu Khan led the devastating attack which ended the Islamic caliphate
at Baghdad, but he also brought the eastern Persian territories
under his firm control (he is seen here with his wife)
1256
- 1262? :
Hulegu
: Son. First Il-Khan ruler from 1259.
1260
- 1264 :
The Mongol empire is engulfed in two simultaneous civil wars: Hulegu
of the Il-Khanate and Berke of the Blue Horde in the west, and Kublai
and Ariq-Boke in the east. Both Kublai and Ariq-Boke are elected
great khan in 1260 at two separate 'khuriltai', with Kublai basing
himself in China and Ariq-Boke at Karakorum. When Kublai is victorious
in 1264, he retains China as his main base, implying (or perhaps
establishing) it as the most important Mongol possession.
1262
:
After several battles between Alughu of the Chaghatayids, who has
sided with Kublai Khan, and Orqina and one Masud Beg, who are fighting
on the side of Ariq-Boke, the latter arranges peace negotiations
between the two sides. Alughu then takes advantage of the unstable
situation by revolting against Ariq-Boke's rule of the west and
gaining the allegiance of the governors of Khwarazm. He also ends
up marrying Orqina, and Masud Beg is appointed viceroy of Central
Asia, probably with a seat in Transoxiana as the very governor that
Alughu needs to support him.
1262
- ? :
Masud
Beg : Viceroy of Central Asia for the Chaghatayids.
1267
- 1268/9 :
Khan Baraq repudiates the overlordship of Kublai Khan and ravages
Khotan. The size of his standing army makes a military intervention
by Kublai impossible, so in 1268 he secures a peaceful agreement
with Baraq so that the problem presented by Kaidu can be faced.
That problem advances on Baraq, but the Chaghatayid khan sets a
trap that inflicts defeat on Kaidu's forces on the banks of the
Jaxartes. A second battle near Khujand sees Kaidu the victor while
he is allied with Mengu-Timur of the Blue Horde. He is then able
to ravage Transoxiana, and Baraq flees first to Samarkand and then
Bukhara, plundering cities along the way as he rebuilds his forces.
An
alarmed Kaidu agrees a temporary truce between the two, in 1269
(although 1267 is proposed as an alternate date). Baraq retains
control of two-thirds of Transoxiana while Kaidu and Mengu-Timur
control the rest as the sometimes fragile peace continues. Baraq
dies in 1271 following an ill-fated attack on the Il-Khanate, and
Kaidu adopts a dominant position over the Chaghatayids, appointing
his own puppet khans for the rest of his life.
1334
:
Tarmashirin is deposed. Taking flight, he is killed by princes of
the eastern Chaghatayids while near Samarkand. The khanate becomes
increasingly unstable under his successors.
1341
:
Il-Khanate puppet Suleiman Khan is also recognised by the Sarbadars
in western Khorasan as they attempt to begin an alliance with the
Chobanids. However, when Hasan Kucek is murdered in 1343, Suleiman
appeals to Hasan Buzurg to intervene in the ensuing Chobanid succession
struggle, but both claimants, together with Suleiman, are forced
to flee to Diyarbakr, where Suleiman maintains his claim until 1345.
The Chobanids renew their control of the Il-Khans.
1346
:
Qazan
is killed by Qazaghan, a tribal chieftain. His death marks the end
of effective Chaghatayid control of Transoxiana. Instead local Turko-Mongol
tribes rise to prominence and establish a loose coalition of power
under the dominance of Qazaghan. His control of the region is given
a semblance of legitimacy when he raises Danishmendji, a member
of the Mongol nobility, to the figurehead throne. Jani Beg of the
Blue Horde takes the opportunity to achieve dominance over the Chaghatayids.
1346
- 1358 :
Qazaghan
: Ruler of the Qara'unas. Assassinated.
1357
- 1359 :
With
the assassination of Jani Beg, the political cohesion of the Golden
Horde begins to disintegrate. The khanate goes from being able to
claim titular dominance over the three ulus (Blue Horde,
White Horde, and Chaghatayids) and actual dominance over the Rus
to internecine warfare and the possibility of complete dissolution.
Under the dominance of the Qara'unas in Transoxiana the Chaghatayids
throw out his administrators to reassert 'their' independence.
1358
- c.1359 :
'Abdullah
: Son. Deposed and forced to flee. Died soon after.
c.1359
:
'Abdullah retains Samarkand as his capital, but the local Barlas
and Suldus tribes are vehemently opposed to this Qara'unas presence.
The leaders of these tribes, Hajji Beg and Buyan Suldus, revolt
and drive out 'Abdullah. He dies in his own tribal lands soon afterwards.
Buyan Suldus is installed as the amir of the ulus,
giving him effective control over the Chaghatayids.
c.1359
- 1362 :
Buyan
Suldus : Ruler of the Suldus. Executed by Chaghatayid Tughlugh
Temur.
1363
- 1405 :
Tughlugh Temur's attempts to quell the tribes of Transoxiana are
eventually unsuccessful, despite two invasions of the region. His
death ends Chaghatayid hopes of restoring control of western Mughulistan.
Instead, two tribal leaders, Amir Husayn and Tîmûr-i Lang contest
for control of Transoxiana. The latter is ultimately successful,
taking Transoxiana and Khorasan in the name of the Chaghatayids,
but effectively forming his own Timurid khanate. Samarkand falls
in 1366, Balikh in 1369, and Timur is recognised as the region's
ruler in 1370.
He
places a figurehead Mongol on the throne to legitimise his rule
while he governs from behind the throne as amir. Two successor
puppet rulers between 1370-1402 are of the same branch From 1380,
Timur extends his new-found empire by taking southern and western
Persia, and then Persia proper in 1382.
1405
- 1507 :
In
1405, the Timurid empire splits in two, with the western, Persian,
half being ruled from Herat in Southern Khorasan, while the eastern
portion is governed from Samarkand (technically also in what had
previously been known as Greater Khorasan, but the regional name
of Transoxiana is usually used to distinguish between the two Timurid
divisions).
Between
1500-1507, the Timurids are overthrown by the Shaibanids, who conquer
Transoxiana and now threaten southern Khorasan. The remnants
of Khwarazm become an independent Muslim Uzbek state, known as the
khanate of Khiva. The Timurid prince, Babur of Ferghana makes
many attempts to recapture Samarkand from Khorasan, without success.
The Shaibanids now hold much of former Khwarazm, effectively ending
Timurid rule of Transoxiana.
Khanate
of Khiva (Khwarazm) :
AD 1511 - 1922 :
An independent Uzbek state, the khanate effectively evolved from
Khwarazm, via the intervening Timurid governance of Transoxiana
of 1303-1505. Much of Khwarazm's former territory was conquered
by the Shaibanid ruler, Mohammed Shaibani in 1505, although his
death in 1510 meant that Babur of Ferghana could reconquer Samarkand
with Safavid Persian help. Babur was unable to retain his hold though,
and his Persian supporters were not at all popular with the locals,
so the Shaibanids were able to retake Samarkand just eight months
later, shortly after they captured Old Urgench. Other clan members
quickly joined them to capture the rest of former Khwarazm and dominate
the other Turkic tribes in the region.
Brothers
Ibars Sultan and the paralysed Balbars Sultan were responsible for
this Shaibanid reconquest - members of the Arabxàhida (Arabshahid)
dynasty, a branch of the main Shaibanid family. They were also known
as the Yadigarid Shabanid dynasty, after Yadegar Khan, grandson
of Arabshahid. They could claim descent from Shiban, son of Jochi
of the Golden Horde and nominal leader of his own Grey Horde khanate.
The Shaibanid empire was later founded in his name, populated mainly
by Uzbeks who ensured the Turkicisation of the formerly Mongol nobility.
By the mid-sixteenth century the territory of Khwarazm was entirely
Muslim Uzbek, although information in English on its rulers is hard
to come by.
The
capital was initially at Wazir (Vezir, more usually an Arabic title
meaning 'minister') and then Old Urgench (Urganj, or the modern
Konye-Urgench). Eventually it was moved to Khiva, which had been
founded around the beginning of the first century AD. This city
had also provided the same service (and name) to Khwarazm and to
the region of Khorasan before that. The change was simply down to
time, language changes, population changes, and various waves of
conquerors. Its origin, however, has been lost time and only various
stories survive to explain it. Possibly the most realistic option
available is that the Iranian-Turkic name Khwarazm was introduced
to replace an earlier, now unknown one, and was later shortened
to Khiva. Today Khiva sits in the Xorazm region of Uzbekistan.
By
around 1700 the khanate's borders encompassed all but the easternmost
region of modern Turkmenistan, plus the western half of Uzbekistan,
and the south-western corner of Kazakhstan between the Ustyurt Plateau
and the Caspian Sea. The khanate flourished in the early nineteenth
century until Russian ambitions ended its independence.
(Additional
information from Indian Frontier Policy, John Ayde (2010),
from Variations on Uzbek Identity, Peter Finke, from Inner
Asia: History, Civilization, Languages; A Syllabus, Denis Sinor
(1969), from History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th
Century, Henry H Howarth (1880), from Kazakhstan, Pang
Guek Cheng, and from External Links: BBC Country Profiles,
and History of Khiva.)
1511
- 1518 :
Sultan
lbars I : Related to former Shaibanid ruler Mohammed Shaibani.
1518
:
The
khanate's capital is moved from Wazir, presumably upon the death
of Ibars. The city of Old Urgench becomes the new capital of the
khanate, which is still known as Khwarazm. Now located in northern
Turkmenistan, close to the Uzbekistan border, the town had probably
been occupied from at least the fifth century BC, and had served
as the capital of the old emirate of Khwarazm.
![Map of the khanate of Khiva](Map_Transoxiana_AD1500_full.jpg)
The
khanate of Khwarazm (Khiva) covered the western territory of three
modern states, namely Turkmenistan at the bottom of the yellow highlighted
area on the map, Uzbekistan in the middle, and Kazakhstan at the
top and along a large slice of the Caspian coastline
Until the seventeenth century the khanate itself is more of a federation
which contains a number of minor khanates. As the supreme regional
khan, Ibars and his successors have theoretical power over the entire
area but in fact they are largely limited to their own immediate
domain and depend upon the solidarity of other clan members to support
them, which usually only becomes manifest in cases of extreme emergency.
That factionalism leads to several civil wars which steadily reduces
the number of applicants for the throne so that, by the time of
Haji Muhammad in 1558 descent is usually through the same immediate
branch of the clan.
1518
- 1519 :
Sultan
Haji : Son of Balbars, the brother of Ibars.
1518
- 1519 :
Sultan Haji is effectively a puppet ruler. His cousin, Sultan Prince
Ghazi, son of Ibars, is the true power behind the throne. Described
as rich and greedy, his fate is unknown (although he could be the
khan of Bukhara, Abu'l-Ghazi Ubaidullah, who dies in 1539). Upon
the death of Haji, tradition is followed so that the eldest of his
uncles, Hasan Quli (son of Abulek, an uncle to Ibars), is selected
as his successor.
1519
- 1524 :
Hasan
Quli / Kuli : Son of Abulek, uncle to Sultan Haji. Killed
in battle.
1523
- 1524 :
The
death of Safavid Shah Ismail allows the Arabxàhida of Old Urgench
to occupy the oases of northern Khorasan around the Kopet Dagh Mountains.
However, Hasan Quli is killed during the process of capturing Old
Urgench.
1524
- 1529 :
Sufyan
/ Sofian : Son of Avanek/Aminak Khan, the uncle of Sultan
Ibars.
1529
- 1535 :
Bujugha
: Brother.
1529
:
Ubayd
Allah Sultan Khan of Shaibanid Bukhara is at war against Tahmasp
I of Persia, and the Uzbeks of Khwarazm support Bukharan attacks
by advancing to Pil Kupruki. The border cities of Khodjend (in Khorasan)
and Asferain (near Astarabad) are also stormed. As Tahmasp also
has to face the Ottomans, he negotiates with the Khwarizmi and effectively
hands them Khorasan.
1535
- 1538 :
Avnik
/ Avanek / Khan Avanesh : Brother.
1539
- 1549 :
Qal
/ Kal : Brother.
1549
- 1556 :
Aqatay
/ Aghatai : Brother.
1549
- 1556 :
During his reign, Aqatay Khan prefers to remain in his home town
of Wazir, so the khanate's capital is temporarily shifted back here,
but only during his lifetime. Sultan Yunus restores Old Urgench
as the capital.
1556
- 1557 :
Sultan
Yunus : Son of Sufyan.
1557
- 1558 :
Dust
Muhammad / Dost Khan : Son of Bujugha. Died without issue.
1558
- 1602 :
Haji
Muhammad I / Hadjdji / Hajim : Son of Avanik.
1576
:
The
Amu Darya has shifted its course far to the south of Old Urgench,
rendering the city largely useless in terms of its capacity to act
as a trading centre. Now the focus of the khanate moves southwards
to remain close to the great river.
1588
- 1598 :
In
the name of Shaibanid ruler, Abdullah II of Bukhara, his son, Abdul-Mu'min,
leads his Uzbek forces in an attack on the important Persian city
of Mashhad (Maixhad). After four months of being besieged, the city
surrenders and the systematic looting that follows does not spare
the sacred tombs. The Uzbek Shaibanids retain the city for almost
a full decade, but Abbas II regains it for the Safavids upon Abdullah's
death in Samarkand.
1593
- 1596 :
Abdullah II launches an attack on Khwarazm and captures the khanate
in two swift campaigns. The second takes place in 1595 when the
Bukharans have a much greater force at their disposal. However,
the region is in a near-constant state of to-and-fro battles and
victories, and Haji Muhammad recovers his domains by 1596.
1598
:
The
Shaibanid empire of Samarkand has effectively come to an end, but
the khanate created by them at Bukhara continues under the Janid
dynasty.
1602
- 1623 :
Arab
Muhammad I : Son. Forced to abandon Old Urgench for Khiva.
Blinded.
1617
- 1618 :
Towards
the end of 1617 or early in 1618, two of the sons of Arab Muhammad
- Habash Sultan and Ilbars Sultan, aged sixteen and fourteen respectively
- are fairly low down the pecking order and can expect little in
the way of territory to govern. They revolt and seize Old Urgench,
and their warrior spirit persuades all of the Uzbeks between Dargan
Ata and Bakugan Ata to join them. Their father is not strong enough
to defeat them in combat so in 1619 he withdraws completely from
Old Urgench.
1619
:
Khan
Arab Muhammad I selects Khiva as the khanate's new capital. The
former capital of Old Urgench is heading towards general abandonment
now that it no longer has river access for trade (and has been hijacked
by the khan's sons). Some sources state that it is from this date
that the khanate becomes known as Khiva. Before that it seems to
be known as Khwarazm, retaining the name used since the tenth century.
However, the truth seems to be that it is generally European sources,
thanks to Russia's soon-to-be increasing influence in the region,
that use 'Khiva' whilst the locals still seem to prefer 'Khwarazm'.
![Old Urgench](Uzbekistan_OldUrgench01_full.jpg)
Old
Urgench had provided the former emirate of Khwarazm with a capital,
and for the early years of its existence it did the same for the
khanate before being abandoned - today its remnants lie within Uzbekistan's
borders
1623
:
Five
years after capturing Old Urgench, Ilbars and Habesh cannot be shifted,
despite repeated attempts by Arab Muhammad and his two elder sons,
Isfandiyar and Abu al-Ghazi. Upon the latest failure, Arab Muhammad
declares them to be rebels and marches openly against them with
a sizable force. He is defeated, captured, and sent to Habash who
has him blinded.
Having
fought with the Persians in Kandahar in 1621, Isfandiyar is granted
five hundred troops to help the cause against the rebels. Ilbars
kills his captured father to remove this figurehead and divides
the khanate between himself (Khiva and Hazarasp) and Habash (Old
Urgench and Wazir).
1623
:
Ilbars
II : Youngest son. In Khiva & Hazarasp. Ruled for a
few months only.
1623
:
Sultan
Habash : Elder brother. In Old Urgench & Wazir.
1623
:
Isfandiyar's
five hundred Persian troops makes all the difference. Now he is
joined by several Turkmen tribes and Sultan Habash is beaten in
battle only to be rescued by his brother. Despite a setback, Isfandiyar
is able to gather more Turkmen support, enough to fight for twenty
days to defeat and capture Ilbars. Ilbars is executed and Habash
dies shortly afterwards.
1623
- 1643 :
Isfandiyar
/ Isfendiar : Senior brother.
1629
:
The
sons of Arab Muhammad again become locked in a power struggle for
superiority. One of them, Abu al-Ghazi, flees for safety to Isfahan,
home to the Safavid court. He remains there until 1639, receiving
a Persian education. During his lifetime he writes two important
works - Genealogy of the Turkmen (1651) and Genealogy
of the Turks (1665) - which provide later historians with a
vital window into Central Asian history.
1643
- 1644 :
Yushan
Sultan : Son. Fate unknown.
1643
- 1644 :
With
Isfandiyar dead, Abu al-Ghazi has seen his opportunity to take control.
He attacks Yushan Sultan who holds out for more than a year, supported
by the Turkmen. Yushan declares himself to be a vassal of Bukhara's
Nadir Khan Muhammad ibn Muhammad Din in the hope of garnering more
support (even though Bukhara is a traditional rival that is almost
constantly at war with Khwarazm). Details are lacking, but in the
end Abu al-Ghazi wins the support of the Uzbeks at the mouth of
the more southerly Amu Darya (River Oxus), and is finally accepted
by the khanate's Turkmen in 1645.
1644
- 1663 :
Abu
al-Ghazi I Bahadur : Brother of Isfandiyar. Secured throne
by force. Abdicated.
1663
- 1687 :
Abu
l-Muzaffar Anusha / Anuxia Khan : Son. Deposed, blinded
and killed by his son.
1685
- 1687 :
Khudaydad
: Rival claimant? No details available.
1687
- 1694 :
Muhammad
Awrang I / Arnak Arang Khan : Son of Anusha.
1694
:
Muhammad Awrang is generally considered to be the last of the khans
to hold sole power in the khanate. The role of Uzbek nobility has
been increasing, and the position of atalik (plural ataliq),
the khan's guardian and adviser, becomes more prominent. So too
does the position of inaki (plural inaqs) who now
begin to occupy the main position of power. However, the rulers
of Bukhara dominate Khiva during the first half of the eighteenth
century, appointing many of its khans, starting with Niyaz Ishaq
Agha Shah in Khiva itself from 1691. This is a period of uncertainty
for the khanate, and internal records become hard to find.
1694
- 1697 :
Chuchaq
/ Djudjaj / Jodji : Rival to Niyaz Ishaq Agha Shah in Khiva?
1697
- 1698 :
Vali
/ Wali Shah Aga : Rival to Niyaz Ishaq Agha Shah in Khiva?
1698
- 1701 :
Niyaz
Ishaq Agha Shah : Nephew of Subhan Kuli Khan of Bukhara.
In Khiva (1691-1698).
c.1701
- 1702 :
Awrang
/ Arang II : From a collateral branch of the clan.
c.1702
- 1704 :
Arab
Muhammad II : Gained throne thanks to the death of Bukhara's
khan?
c.1704
- 1706 :
Musa
/ Musi Khan : In opposition from 1701? Khan from 1704?
Killed.
c.1712
- 1713 :
Yadigar
I : Brother of Musa? Could have ruled after Haji Muhammad
II.
c.1713
- 1714 :
Awrang
/ Arang III / Erenk : Same as Awrang II?
c.1714
:
Haji
Muhammad II / Hadjdji Khan Bahadur : Could have ruled as
early as 1704. Brother of Yadigar.
1715
- 1727 :
Shir
Ghazi / Chir Ghazi : First certain ruler in two decades.
His end is unknown.
1715
:
The
Kazakhs can be divided into three clans, or hordes, and each of
these has its own territory. Now the Kazakh Lesser Horde begins
acting independently of the others within its main base of operations
in western Kazakhstan. Its leaders are descendants of Sultan Uziak,
brother to Yadik Khan, and they are mentioned for the first time
in 1717 when, together with Kaip Khan, they asked for help against
the Russian Kalmuks. Having consolidated the Lesser Horde, Tiavka
Khan is now dead. Abu l-Khayr (son of Adia, who is probably to be
identified with Atiak, a contemporary of Tiavka Khan) fights for
supremacy with Kaip Khan and wins. Abu l-Khayr becomes the first
independent khan of the Lesser Horde.
![Kazakh Lesser Horde](Kazakhstan_Warriors01_full.jpg)
The
Kazakh Lesser Horde originated in the Nogais Horde to the north
of the Caspian Sea and in what is now western Kazakhstan, but Russian
dominance by the eighteenth century was fracturing the Kazakhs
1717
- 1718 :
The
discovery of gold along the banks of the Amu Darya has prompted
a good deal of interest in the region by various great powers. Peter
the Great of the Russias sends a 'trade' expedition under the command
of Prince Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky which comes complete with
a considerable number of armed men. It fails to secure Russian ambitions
in the region, however, because Shir Ghazi slaughters all but ten
of the men. After his Swedish and Ottoman conflicts, Czar Peter
is unable to raise any funds to mount a retaliatory strike.
1723
- 1726 :
Timur
Khan : Son of Musa Khan and pretender to throne. 'Khan
of the Arals'.
1727
:
Sarigh
Ayghir : Pretender, or confusion with an earlier ruler?
1727
- 1728 :
Bahadur
: Pretender, or confusion with an earlier ruler?
1728
:
The
khanate emerges from another period of obscurity and uncertain rulers
with the accession of Ilbars III. He is a Kazakh, with no known
connections to the traditional ruling clan. He refuses to submit
to Afsharid ruler Nadir Shah of Iran, setting the two states on
a collision course.
1728
- 1740 :
Ilbars
III : Succeeded Shir Ghazi. Captured and executed.
1740
- 1746 :
Khiva
is occupied by Afsharid ruler Nadir Shah. The khanate is reduced
to the status of a dependency during this period and Bukharan dominance
is replaced by even greater Iranian dominance. Nadir Shah appoints
his own ruler for the khanate but he is almost immediately sidelined
by the Kazakh Lesser Horde which gains the support of Uzbeks and
Aralians in the khanate. Tahir is killed by Nurali, son of Abu l-Khayr
of the Lesser Horde.
1740
- 1742 :
Tahir
/ Tagir : Afsharid vassal. Cousin of Abu l-Faiz Muhammad
of Bukhara.
1740
:
Abu
l-Khayr : Khan of the Kazakh Lesser Horde. In effective
control.
1741
- 1742 :
Nurali
/ Nuraly I : Son. Proclaimed khan by rebel Uzbeks &
Aralians. Fled.
1741
- 1743 :
Ertuk
: Inaki (minister). Seized the throne but captured
by Nurali.
1742
:
Abu
Muhammad : Son of Ilbars III. Afsharid vassal. Overthrown.
1742
- 1745 :
Abu
al-Ghazi II Muhammad : Appointed by the rebels.
1745
:
Khiva
remains a troubled state. Now Persia's General Ali Kuli goes on
the offensive, defeating the Turkmen yomuts in battle close to Old
Urgench, these being the main supporters of the rebel khan. Abu
al-Ghazi remains the figurehead for the rebels but Ali Kuli appoints
Ghaib as the 'official' khan. He is the son Batir or Batyr Khan
of the Kazakh Lesser Horde and, with the support of the Uzbek Karakalpak,
he is also a rival to Nurali, son of Abu l-Khayr, for control of
the horde.
1745
- 1771? :
Ghaib
/ Ghaip / Kaip : Afsharid vassal. Son of Bator Khan of
the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1750
:
The
former territory of Southern Khorasan is officially renamed Afghanistan
by Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Durrani dynasty, during his state's
greatest period of expansion and power. The name sticks, and is
used to refer to the region from this point onwards.
![The Third Battle of Panipat](Marathas_ThirdPanipat01_full.jpg)
Ahmad
Shah Abdali renamed southern Khorasan and built himself an empire
that could see off even the might of the Marathas at the Third Battle
of Panipat
Khan Ghaib's reign in Khwarazm witnesses the start of a short period
of domination of the throne by the Kazakh Lesser Horde. Ghaib himself
withdraws from Khiva after appointing a vassal as his chief minister
or inaki in 1758. Abdullah Qara Beg is another Kazakh, one
of many who fill the role during this period. Very few of them are
recorded in any detail at all, not even down to identifying their
ancestry, and some lists omit most of them entirely. In these cases
Khan Gaib is shown as returning to take direct control between 1774-1791
before handing over to his son in 1791.
1758
:
Abdullah
Qara Beg / Abd Allah Karabay : Vassal inaki of the
Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1758
- 1764 :
Timur
Sultan Ghazi : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser
Horde.
1764
- 1766 :
Tawke
: Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1766
- 1768 :
Shah
Ghazi : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1768
- 1769 :
Abu
al-Ghazi III : Son of Ghaib? Vassal inaki of the
Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1769
:
Nurali
/ Nuraly II : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser
Horde.
1769
- 1770 :
Jahangir
: Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1770
:
Bölekey
: Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1770
- 1771 :
Aqim
: Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
c.1771
:
Abd
al-Aziz : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
c.1772
:
Artuq
Ghazi : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
c.1772
:
Abdullah
: Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
c.1772
- 1773 :
Aqim
: Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde for the
second time.
c.1773
- 1775 :
Yadigar
II : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1775
- 1779 :
Abu'l
Fayz : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1779
- 1781 :
Yadigar
II : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde for
the second time.
1781
- 1783 :
Pulad
Ghazi : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde.
1783
- 1791? :
Yadigar
II : Vassal inaki of the Kazakh Lesser Horde for
the third time.
1791
:
Khan
Ghaib, leader of the Kazakh Lesser Horde, could have retained his
position as ruler of Khiva until his death in this year. His age
is somewhere between sixty and seventy. Married to a daughter of
Abu l-Faiz Muhammad, khan of Bukhara, his son, Abu l-Ghazi III,
is khan from around 1791 until 1804. The numbering for Abu l-Ghazi
suggests that he has already served as inaki in 1768-1769,
and that some lists which show an Abu l-Ghazi IV and V are wrong.
All three instances should probably refer to one and the same man.
1791?
- 1802 :
Abu
al-Ghazi IV (III) : Son of Ghaib? Same as Abu al-Ghazi
III & V?
1802
- 1804 :
Abu
al-Ghazi V (III) ibn Gha'ib : Son of Ghaib. Deposed by
the inaki during a coup.
1804
:
The Arabshahid dynasty, otherwise known as the Yadigarid Shabanid
dynasty, is overthrown by its former inaki or minister who
begins the Uzbek Qungrat (or Kongrat) dynasty. The position of 'biy'
which is held by Iltazar Inaq is the equivalent to an elected judge.
1804
- 1806 :
Iltazar
Inaq ibn Iwaz Inaq Biy : First khan of the Qungrat dynasty.
Self-proclaimed shah.
1804
- 1806 :
Iltazar dominates the mouth of the Syr Darya as far as Kala-i-Mawr
and prevents Bukhara from dominating the oasis of Merv. This perhaps
restores a touch of Khivan dominance to its own territory, something
that has been lacking under the later Yadigarid Shabanid rulers.
1806
:
Abu
al-Ghazi V (III) ibn Gha'ib : Restored briefly following
Iltazar's death, but without support.
1806
- 1825 :
Muhammad
Rahim Bahadur : Younger brother of Iltazar. Proclaimed
over Abu al-Ghazi.
1806
- 1825 :
During his reign, Muhammad Rahim Khan Bahadur carries out incursions
into Kazak territory, striking at Khorasan and furthering Khivan
claims of dominance.
1825
- 1842 :
Allah
Quli Bahadur : Squandered the treasury in wars against
Bukhara.
1839
- 1840 :
Russia under Czar Nicholas I pursues a renewed policy of pressuring
the Ottoman empire and Britain for control of southern Central Asia.
He sends an expedition to Khiva, purportedly to free slaves who
had been captured from areas of the Russian frontier and sold by
Turkmen raiders. Britain is already involved in the First Anglo-Afghan
War in Afghanistan but, despite sending over five thousand infantry,
the Russian force stumbles into one of harshest winters in living
memory. It is driven back by the weather and by its losses in early
1840.
![Khiva](Uzbekistan_Khiva01_full.jpg)
The
ancient city of Khiva was extensively 'modernised' and expanded
during the various stages of Khwarazm's existence, and it remains
inhabited today by a population of about 50,000 people
Britain
decides that Russian (and also Persian) intrigues pose a threat
to its control of India. To counter that perceived threat, it is
decided that Afghanistan will be used as a buffer state and the
slave situation in Khiva will be solved without military intervention.
The khan is convinced to free all Russian subjects under his control
and to outlaw any further slavery of Russians.
At the same time, in 1839, Emir Nasr-Allah of Bukhara serves to
weaken the defensive situation in the region by declaring war on
Kokend. The excuse is the building of the Pishgar fort near the
Bukharan border, and Kokend is swiftly conquered, albeit briefly.
It has to be conquered again in 1842, with Bukhara securing overlordship
of Kokend and executing its khan, but Nasr-Allah's forces are expelled
during a revolt in the same year.
1842
- 1846 :
Muhammad
Rahim Quli / Kuli : Son.
1846
- 1855 :
Abu
al-Ghazi Muhammad Amin Bahadur : Brother.
1848
:
Undeterred
by previous setbacks, Russia builds Fort Aralsk at the mouth of
the Syr Darya. From here the empire begins a steady process of encroachment
upon the lands of Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokend. Russia meets stiff
resistance all the way but its resources far exceed those of its
opponents.
1855
:
Sayyid
Abdullah : Distant relative, grand-nephew of Iltazar. Killed
in battle.
1855
:
The Tekke Turkmen tribal confederation defeats Sayyid Abdullah at
Sarahks and proclaim independence. They form the khanates of Merv
Tekke and Akhal Tekke, severely reducing Khiva in size.
1855
- 1856 :
Qutlugh
Muhammad Murad Bahadur : Brother.
1856
:
Sayyid
Mahmud : Son of Muhammad Rahim Quli. Abdicated after a
few days.
1856
- 1864 :
Sayyid
Muhammad : Brother.
1864
- 1910 :
Muhammad
Rahim Bahadur : Son.
1865
:
Russia takes Bukhara, Tashkent, and Samarkand (all of which go into
forming Uzbekistan in 1924). Tashkent is made the capital of a new
state of the same name, incorporating vast areas of Central Asia
into its territory.
1873
:
Weakened by attacks from Kokend and Bukhara and losing control of
the right bank of the Syr Darya, Khiva is finally conquered by Russia
on the third attempt. Russian General von Kaufman leads 13,000 infantry
and cavalry, taking the capital, Khiva, on 28 May 1873. The city's
fall is recorded by artist Vasily Vereshchagin. A treaty of August
of the same year establishes Khiva as a Russian protectorate which
retains its own rulers but only with nominal independence. Bukhara's
remnants, too, become a Russian protectorate.
![Russia takes Khiva in 1873](Uzbekistan_Khiva02_full.jpg)
Russia's
determination to capture Khiva led it farther and farther east and
south around the shore of the Caspian Sea - until Khiva was finally
taken in 1873 and the artist Vasily Vereshchagin could be present
to capture this scene of Russian troops entering the capital
1910
- 1918 :
Isfandiyar
Jurji Bahadur : Killed by Turkmen leader named Junaid Khan.
1917
:
Under
the imposition of communism in Russia, the territory now comprises
the Kwarazem / Khorezm Soviet People's Republic, otherwise known
as the Tashkent Soviet.
1918
- 1920 :
Sayid
Abdullah : Puppet khan of Junaid Khan until 1 Feb 1920.
Deposed.
1918
- 1921 :
A
reorganisation of Central Asian Soviet-controlled states along ethnic
lines means the end of the khanate of Khiva, the Turkestan Krai,
and the emirate of Bukhara (the latter being ousted by the Tashkent
Soviet in 1920). Sayid Abdullah is deposed and his khanate is merged
with the others into the newly-formed 'Turkestan Autonomous Soviet
Socialist Republic', which is formed as a self-governing entity
of the early Soviet Union. However, in the same year, the Islamic
Council and the Council of Intelligentsia declare the rival 'Turkestan
Autonomous Republic', and set about fighting against the Bolshevik
forces who start closing down mosques and persecuting Muslim clergy
as part of their secularisation campaign.
1921
- 1924 :
The
Turkestan Autonomous Republic has gradually lost ground to the Bolsheviks.
The Bolsheviks themselves have been divided into two groups over
the region's future, but the idea of a pan-Turkic state is jettisoned
in place of several smaller states. In 1924 the Turkestan ASSR is
divided into the Uzbek SSR, the Turkmen SSR, the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous
Oblast (Kyrgyzstan), and the Karakalpak Autonomous Oblast (modern
Karakalpakstan, an autonomous republic of Uzbekistan). Initially,
the Tajik ASSR is also adjoined to the Uzbek state. In essence,
modern Uzbekistan is formed.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsFarEast/AsiaKhwarazm.htm
#Persians