INDIA
(ARYAVRAT / BHARAT)
India
in South Asia has been inhabited since about 70,000-60,000 BC -
one of the earliest locations to be permanently inhabited by hunter-gatherers
who had emerged from Africa up to 10,000 years before. That hunter-gatherer
culture survived in the rich, verdant, and extremely fertile country
of the sub-continent until the first permanent settlements emerged
around 7000 BC in the Indus river valley, such as at Mergarh in
modern Baluchistan. The next migration into India originated in
the Zagros region in south-western Iran, and this brought agriculturists,
most likely herders, into the sub-continent between 7000 and 3000
BC. These Zagrosian herders intermixed with the earlier inhabitants
of the subcontinent and together they formed the the Indus Valley
culture. However, while this provided an early flowering of civilisation
in north-western India in the third millennium BC, its demise around
1700 BC left South Asia without an urban culture until small cities
emerged in the east, in the Ganges valley and northern India.
During
the later years of the Indus Valley culture, and that of its more
northerly counterpart, the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex
(BMAC), climate change was clearly having an affect. The rains were
drying up and cities were gradually being abandoned. Sophisticated
Bronze Age chariot-riding, cattle-herding Indo-Europeans (IEs) from
the north became more greatly integrated into this region and eventually
they took it over. By 1500 BC, these new folk had begun to filter
into India from the north-west, from the direction of modern Afghanistan,
displacing or mixing with the native Elamo-Dravidian peoples. This
particular branch of Indo-Europeans were the Indo-Aryans. They were
a division of the Indo-Iranians who remained in Central Asia and
who populated the civilised zone between Ferghana and Persia, but
the Indo-Aryans may have preceded that particular takeover because
it can be seen that they reached people and areas that would only
later be dominated by Indo-Iranians, such as the Hurrians of Mitanni.
The
Indo-European word 'arya' meant the 'civilised' or 'respectable'
according to general scholarly opinion (the rather tainted 'Aryan'
term has been replaced by modern scholars with the more accurate
'Indo-Aryan'). This word, added to a plural suffix, possibly -na,
produced Aryana, which is how these people referred to themselves.
The East Indo-Europeans who supplied the tribes which formed the
Indo-Aryans and Indo-Iranians were documented as calling themselves
Aryans when they entered India. This rather elitist naming is explained
as a reaction to the apparently barbarous people they encountered
in India, although an earlier reason may supply the true meaning
because the name clearly predated the migration into India (its
survival in Central Asia and Iran shows this). The 'barbarous people'
were probably those of the forager cultures encountered when the
IEs first migrated to the east of the Caspian Sea.
The
Indo-Aryans shared a common language base with the other Indo-European
groups which were spreading west and south from the Pontic-Caspian
steppe above the Black Sea and Caspian Sea and which later formed
the basis of languages such as Greek, Persian, and Latin. Even by
the eighteenth century AD, similarities between the languages, which
in India emerged as Sanskrit, could easily be spotted by philologists.
The earliest Sanskrit texts, the Vedas (and in particular, Rig Veda)
chart an Indo-European migration from Afghanistan (where rivers
with recognisable names are mentioned) into north-western India,
notably Peshawar, where they settled along the Indus Valley, the
river which gave India its name.
(Additional
information by Edward Dawson. Details on the migration of the Indo-Europeans
into India from the BBC series, The Story of India, by Michael Wood,
first broadcast between August-September 2007. Further additional
information from The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age
Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, David
W Anthony, from the Encyclopaedia of Indo-European Culture, J P
Mallory & D Q Adams (Eds, 1997), from Early Indians: The Story
of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From, Tony Joseph (Juggernaut,
2018), and from External Links: Indo-European Chronology - Countries
and Peoples, and Indo-European Etymological Dictionary, J Pokorny.)
c.1500
BC :
The first signs of Indo-European culture emerges between Peshawar
and the Ganges Plain. The latter region, in modern Bihar, witnesses
the first and greatest of Indian kingdoms, that of Magadh. This
migration into India by Indo-Europeans and the founding of their
first kingdoms is highly controversial in modern India, with some
arguments even going to state that there is no such 'invasion'.
The consensus of more considered opinion is that it does indeed
happen and that much of the accepted information below is largely
true (even if individual facts may seem rather shaky).
![Ganges Delta](Ganges_River01_full.jpg)
The
Ganges Plain saw the rise of the first northern Indian kingdoms
from around the sixteenth century BC onwards
Kingdom
of Magadh :
This was one of the first kingdoms to be founded by the newly arrived
Indo-Aryans in India after 1500 BC. The heart of the early Aryan
territory was the region of Peshawar in modern Pakistan, but the
Magadhs may have been amongst the first to venture further eastwards.
Centred on the Ganges Plain, in modern Bihar, their kingdom was
one of the sixteen 'Great Countries' or regions (Mahājanapads,
in Sanskrit). The kingdom later spread out to encompass much of
India during an era of heroic warfare which came to be crystallised
as the Indian epic, the Mahabharata. The first capital was
Rajagah (modern Rajgir) before being transferred to Pataliputra
(modern Patna).
The early rulers, down to the sixth century BC are almost entirely
unknown outside traditional texts, such as the Purans, and Buddhist
and Jain texts. Although India's strong oral culture means the list
of kings is probably reliable, it is open to much debate. The Haryanka
ruler, Bimbisara, is the first of the Magadhn kings to be dated
with anything approaching accuracy, and the dates of those before
him are calculated backwards using assumed lengths of rule. Modern
Indian historians tend to assume longer lengths, pushing the start
of this list back to an earlier date than is shown here. This has
the effect of placing the earliest Magadh rulers in Peshawar, or
still on the migratory trail into India, whereas here they are assumed
to have already infiltrated the Ganges Plain before their first
Indian (as opposed to Indo-Aryan migration) dynasty is proclaimed.
The Janapadas (kingdoms) of the Vedic period also included a shifting
number of other kingdoms, all of which vied for control and supremacy
as they assimilated the native Dravidic people and stamped their
culture on northern India. These included the Druhyus of the seven
rivers (immediately to the east of the River Indus), who were driven
out by Mandhatr. They resettled on the western side of the Indus
to dominate the Indo-Aryan Gandhari people.
Sudhanu
Dynasty :
According to the Srimad Bhagavatm (Bhagavat Puran), the story of
Krishna, one of Hinduism's most important texts, 'Another son of
Ajamidha was named Rksa. From Rksa came a son named Samvarana, and
from Samvarana came Kuru, the king of Kuruksetra [the scene of the
great war in the Mahabharata, composed between about 400
BC-AD 400]. Kuru had four sons: Pariksi, Sudhanu, Jahnu and Nisadha'.
Sudhanu inherited the kingdom which became Magadh.
fl
c.1460? BC :
Sudhanu
Suhatra
/ Suhotra : Son.
Chyavana
/ Cyavana : Son.
fl
c.1400? BC :
Kriti
/ Krti : Son.
Uparicara
Vasu : Son.
Brhadratha
Dynasty :
It seems likely that the powerful Magadh kingdom was established
on the Ganges Plain by these legendary kings. The second of them,
Jarasandh, is mentioned in the Puran texts as a son of Brhadratha.
He also appears in the Mahabharata as the 'Magadhn emperor
who rules all India', although he was killed in single combat by
one of three assassins from the kingdom of Kuru, who were concerned
with liberating the many captive kings he held. The long line of
kings who succeeded him are all mentioned in the Buddhist, Hindu,
and Jain texts. By this time, other Indo-Aryan kingdoms had apparently
emerged alongside Magadh, notably (but not exclusively) in the east,
including Ang, Kaling, Pundra, Sindhu, Suhma, and Vang. The Assam
region was also enjoying its first flush of kingship.
The list of legendary Brhadratha kings shown in black is from the
Vayu Puran, but the the Matsya Puran shows a list
of names which differs in places, and these are inserted where appropriate
in red.
(Additional information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha and Edward Dawson.)
fl
c.1360? BC :
Brhadratha
: Son of Uparicara Vasu.
Jarasandha
: Son. Crowned emperor of Magadh.
c.1300?
BC
:
One
of Jarasandh's contemporaries is Jayatsen of Magadh, probably an
ally and vassal who rules a section of the kingdom independently
after Jarasandh's death. Jayatsen takes part in the Kurukshetra
War in the Mahabharat as one of the leaders on the side
of the Kauravas, along with Srutayus of Kaling, Paundrak Vasudev
of Pundra, Karna of Ang, and Malayadwaj of the Pandyas. Bhagadata
of the Narak kings is also involved in the war.
Jarasandh is killed by Bhima, one of the heroes of the Mahabharat,
who slays him after an intense fight (of twenty-seven days) on the
advice of Lord Krishna, who is revered as a god. He is the second
assassin of the three, the final one being Arjuna (Bhima's brother
and a superb archer), the illustrious pivotal character in the Mahabharata.
Somapi
: Son.
Shrutashrava
/ Srutasravas : Son.
Ayutaya
/ Ayutayus (Apratipa)
Niramitra
: 'Mitra' is an Indo-European source word for 'metre' and
'metric'.
Suksatra
/ Sukshatra / Sunaksatra : Son.
fl
c.1100? BC :
Brhatkarman
/ Brihatkarman : Son?
Brihatsen
: The same as Brhatkarman?
Senajit
Shrutanjaya
/ Sutanjayat
Vipra
/ Vibhu (Vidhu)
Shuci
/ Suchi : Son of Shrutanjay.
fl
c.1000? BC :
Ksemya
/ Kshemya
Suvrat
/ Subrat
Sunetra
: Joint ruler or sub-king with Suvrata from 29th year of
his reign.
Dharmanetra
/ Dharma : In the Vayu Puran only.
Susuma
(Sushrama?) : In the Vayu Puran only.
Drdhasen
/ Dridhasen : In the Vayu Puran only.
fl
c.900? BC :
Nivritti
/ Nivrati
Sumati
: In the Vayu Puran only.
Suvala
/ Subhala : In the Vayu Puran only.
Trinetra
Sunita
: In the Vayu Puran only.
Mahatsena
Satyajit
: In the Vayu Puran only.
Sunik
/ Pradyota Dynasty :
There are two conflicting claims for the founder of this dynasty,
with both the first two rulers being given the honour. According
to the Vayu Puran, the Pradyotas ruled Magadh for 138 years from
799-684 BC, when they were displaced by the Shishunagas who rose
up during a period of lawlessness in the kingdom (but see the Sisunaka
dynasty for more on the confusion over Shishunaga in c.684 and 410
BC). In support of this, the dynasty ends with Varttivarddhan in
most lists, with Shishunag's successors here mostly being repeated
in the Sisunaka list.
fl
c.700? BC :
Sunika
/ Punika
Pradyota
Mahasena
Palak
: Son.
Palak conquers Kaushambi (in modern Uttar Pradesh), strengthening
the kingdom.
![Map of Central Asia & India c.700 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-700BC_full.jpg)
Following
the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations
and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC,
Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions
- Tūr (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming
the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering
India (green)
Vishakhayup
Janaka
/ Ayak / Aryak / Ajak
Varttivarddhan
/ Nandivardhan
c.684
- ? BC :
Shishunag
: Possibly confused with Sisunaga (410-392 BC).
fl
c.600? BC :
Kakavarna
Kshemadharman
Kshatraujs
Haryank
Dynasty :
Bimbisar founded a new dynasty and showed great energy in expanding
the kingdom, either through conquest or marriage, subjecting the
rival kingdom of Anga in what is now western Bengal via the former
means. His son, Ajatshatru, completed his work, strengthening the
capital at Rajagrih and expanding westwards up the Ganges. The capital
was later transferred to Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar) by
Ajatshatru. Confusingly, Bimbisar is also claimed for the Shishunag
dynasty beginning in c.684 BC, perhaps indicating that the use of
Haryank as a dynasty name is a later modification.
c.546
- 530 BC :
Just as the Haryankas are founding their new dynasty in eastern
India, Cyrus the Great sweeps through South Asia and the Hindu Kush.
Under his command, the Persians enter the Indus Valley and create
the province of Thatagush, although records for these campaigns
are characteristically sparse.
c.543
- 491 BC :
Bimbisar
: Murdered by his son.
c.543
BC :
While still crown prince, Bimbisara had killed King Bramhadatta
of Anga and annexed his state. Now it seems that Anga is absorbed
into the increasingly powerful Magadhn state by Bimbisara.
c.491
- 459 BC :
Ajatashatru
: Son. (Or ruled c.551-519 BC)
Gaining the kingdom by murdering his father, Ajatshatru is also
a contemporary of Gautam Buddh (c.563-483 BC, but many dating variations
are proposed by various scholars). He strengthens the kingdom by
annexing the rival kingdoms of Kashi and Kosaa, is at war with the
Vriji Confederacy for sixteen years, and defeats the fractured Lichchhavi
kingdom north of the Ganges.
![Sarnath in India](Magadha_Sarnath01_full.jpg)
After
he had crystallised the tenets of the Eightfold Path in his mind,
the Buddha travelled from Bodh Gaya to Sarnath, site of the First
Sermon
Darshak
: Descent unknown, and not shown in all lists.
c.459
- 443 BC :
Udayin
/ Udayibhadra : Son of Ajatshatru.
c.443
- 439 BC :
Anuruddh
: Cousin of Buddh. Succeeded through assassination.
c.439
- 435 BC :
Mund
: Son. Succeeded through assassination.
c.430
BC :
The
earliest ancestor figure for the Chera kings of southern India is
dated to this period. He is Vanavaramban, and his unnamed successors
term themselves the 'Vanavar', the 'celestials', with it being common
for Hindu (and also early Germanic) dynasties to refer to themselves
by the name of a founding figure. The gap between him and the next
ruler who can be listed with any certainty can be accounted for
by the lack of records for the state, and probably also by its unimportance.
c.435
- 410 BC :
Nagdasak
: Son. Succeeded through assassination.
c.410
BC :
The continuing bloodshed in the dynasty probably leads to a civil
war in which the Haryanks are replaced by their former court officials,
the Sisunaks.
Sisunaka
Dynasty (Shishunaga) :
Some sources state that the Sisunagas began with the Shishunaga
of c.684 BC, and there seems to be some confusion over whether they
were one and the same person or two entirely separate rulers. The
second appearance of the name, Sisunaga, is used here as the founder
of his eponymous dynasty. The Magadh capital remained at Pataliputra.
410
- 392 BC :
Sisunag
/ Shishunag : Former amatya (official) under the
Haryankas.
392
- 380 BC :
Kalasok
380
- 358 BC :
Kalasok's
ten sons rule the kingdom in succession over the course of the next
twenty-two years, the most prominent being :
Nandivardhan
: One of the ten sons of Kalasok.
Ksemadharman
: Repeated from the Pradyota list.
Ksemajit
or Ksatraujs : Repeated from the Pradyota list.
Bimbisar
: A repetition of the king of c.543 BC?
?
- 344? BC :
Mahanandin
: Chandragupt Maurya is claimed as his possible son.
Nand
Dynasty :
The Sisunakas were overthrown by Mahapadma Nand, first of the 'Nine
Nands'. He is said to have been an illegitimate son of the last
Sisunak ruler, Mahnandin, or at least, of low birth. The other eight
Nand monarchs were all the sons of Mahapadma. Under the Nands, the
kingdom regained its western Indian territories for a time, right
up to the border of modern Pakistan. It also extended south to the
Deccan plateau.
One
interesting theory regarding the Nand kings, put forward by Dr Ranajit
Pal, suggests they were not originally based in Bihar but were instead
from Magan in the west. Inscription and name evidence seems to suggest
that Darius II and Artaxerxes III of Persia may have been Nand kings,
although there is no other proof for a Persian presence so far east.
c.370
- 324 BC :
Mahapadma
Nand : Son of Sisunak Dynasty's Mahanandin? Died aged 88.
Over the course of his long reign, according to the Mahabharat,
Mahapadma Nand defeats many rival kings and tribes, including the
Asmaks, Haihayas, Ikshvaku dynasty, Kalingas, Kasis, Kurus, Maithilas,
Panchalas, Sursens, and Vitihotras.
Pandhuk
: Son.
Panghupati : Brother.
Bhutapal : Brother.
Rashtrapal : Brother.
Govishanak : Brother.
Dashasidkhak : Brother.
Kaivart : Brother.
?
- c.321 BC :
Dhana
Nand / Argames : Brother. Aggrammes or Xandrames to the
Greeks.
327 - 326 BC :
Alexander the Great's Macedonian army enters western India through
the passes of the Hindu Kush, aided by King Ambhi of Taxila in Northern
Indus (Punjab) in his war against Porus of Paurava and by the Sakas
under Omarg. But it is in Punjab his troops rebel against the prospect
of more battles against another great army on the Ganges. Alexander
is forced to pull back, abandoning his hopes of conquering India.
However, a swathe of minor states across north-western India remain
his vassals.
c.321
BC :
Dhana is defeated by the young son of a Nand prince (or the son
of a village headman - opinion is divided), who is called Chandragupt
Maurya, and then murdered (by assailant(s) unknown), because he
is apparently despised due to his low birth, and his wickedness.
The once-great Magadh kingdom comes to an end as the Nand dynasty
fails to hold onto power. Initially, in name at least, the victorious
Mauryan empire retains the Magadh name.
Mauryan
Empire :
321 - 185 BC :
Possibly because of the pressure exerted by the Persian empire,
which governed a larger area of conquered territory than any preceding
empire, around its margins there developed various other centralised
territorial states, including the Macedonian kingdom in Greece.
The arrival of Alexander the Great into India also inspired the
creation of India's first true empire, the Mauryan empire in northern
India, which remains one of the country's greatest. At the behest
of his teacher, who had been a subject of Dhana Nand and who had
fled when his father had been murdered by the king, Chandragupt
Maurya conquered the ancient northern Indian kingdom of Magadh,
defeated its ruling Nand dynasty and incorporating its territory
into the heart of his new empire. He retained the Magadh capital
at Pataliputra, where his former teacher, Vishnugupt Chanakya, became
his prime minister.
When
Chandragupt encountered the Greek forces which Alexander the Great
left in India, they knew him as Sandrokotos. His conquests in Macedonian-controlled
northern India caused the vassal states to assassinate the Greek
satrap of the Northern Indus (Punjab) in 325 BC, one Philip, thereby
helping to speed up the final severing of Greco-Bactrian control
of north-western India.
(Additional
information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksh, and Madhu Nimkar, from the Mudrarakshasa,
Vishakhadatt (Playwright), from the Parishishtaparvan, Acharya
Hemachandra, and from External Link: Encyclopędia Britannica.)
c.324
- 301 BC :
Chandragupt
Maurya : Founder of the empire in 321 BC.
321
BC :
Following his coronation, Chandragupt embarks on his conquest of
a large swathe of the rest of India, starting with central India.
He overcomes all opposition in the territory up to the north of
the River Narmada. Ancient authors mention an alliance between Chandragupt
and the Himalayan King Parvataka (a figure who is sometimes identified
as the King Porus of Paurava who had been an ally of the Greeks
since 326 BC).
305
- 303 BC :
Following the failure of Seleucus Nicator's Greek reconquest of
India, the Indo-Greek regions of Paropamisadae, Arachosia, Gandhar,
Northern Indus (Punjab), and probably also Southern Indus are ceded
to the Mauryan empire by the Seleucids as part of an alliance agreement.
This territory also includes the former kingdoms of Taxila and Paurav
in the Indus. Subsequent relations between the Greeks and the Mauryans
appear to be cordial. Seleucus even appoints Megasthenes as his
ambassador to Chandragupt's court.
![The Mauryan capital of Patna](Mauryas_Patna01_full.jpg)
Chandragupt's
Mauryan capital of Pataliputra (modern Patna) is shown here in computer-generated
form as it would have appeared from the air in the fourth century
BC
Bindusar
Maurya 'Amitraghat' : Son. Gained Deccan plateau. Amitrochates
to the Greeks.
301
- 269 BC :
Sushima
: Son. Defeated in the succession war by Ashok.
273
- 269 BC :
There is a war of succession in the empire, in which Ashok is said
to fight his ninety-nine brothers, probably referring to seemingly
insurmountable odds. Ultimately Ashok is victorious and claims the
throne.
269
- 232 BC :
Ashok
(Ashokvardhan) Maurya : Brother. Buddhist.
c.261
BC :
During
his reign, Ashok manages to extend the empire's borders to cover
almost the entire subcontinent, save the southern tip and Sri Lanka.
Perhaps his greatest feat as a military commander is the conquest
of the kingdom of Kalinga and its ruler, Kumar. The conflict devastates
large swathes of the populace and his own army. Witnessing the destruction,
Ashok renounces violence and becomes a Buddhist.
250
BC :
In his role as a devout Buddhist, Ashok visits Nepal on pilgrimage.
Some
historians theorise that Ashok and Diodotus II of Bactria are one
and the same, and there evidence to support the theory. After his
death, Ashok's sons dispute the title and (as in Bactria) the empire
starts to crumble. Kalinga is one of the first to separate.
232
BC :
Kunal
/ Kunala : Son. Blinded by one of Ashok's wives.
232
- 224 BC :
Dashrath
: Succeeded when half-brother Kunal became blind.
224
BC :
All of the subsequent kings are weak, and territory begins to be
eroded away from the empire, notably by the Indo-Greek kings in
the north-west. Despite this it is probably still a force to be
reckoned with.
![Map of Bactria and India 200 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-200BC_full.jpg)
The
kingdom of Bactria (shown in white) was at the height of its power
around 200-180 BC, with fresh conquests being made in the south-east,
encroaching into India just as the Mauryan empire was on the verge
of collapse, while around the northern and eastern borders dwelt
various tribes that would eventually contribute to the downfall
of the Greeks - the Sakas and Greater Yuezhi
224
- 215 BC :
Samrat
Samprati : Son of Kunal.
215
- 202 BC :
Salisuk
206
BC :
Seleucid ruler Antiochus III marches from Bactria, across the Hindu
Kush, and into the Kabul Valley where he renews ties of friendship
with an Indian king by the name of Sophagasenos. This king is otherwise
completely unknown and cannot be matched with any more certain Indian
rulers. Instead, given the location it seems that he may be a local
ruler, perhaps in post-Mauryan Paropamisadae before it is seized
by the Indo-Greek kingdom.
202
- 195 BC :
Devavarman
195-
187 BC :
Satadhanvan
187
- 185 BC :
Brhadrat
: Last Mauryan king - assassinated.
185
BC :
Much shrunken since the days of Ashok, the empire is overthrown
by General Pusyamitra Shung. The Macedonian kings of Bactria annexe
the western half of the empire, including Paropamisadae and Arachosia,
advancing as far as the Ganges and the capital at Pataliputra (modern
Patna). In Kaling, the Chedi assume control, while minor kingdoms
spring up elsewhere in India. The most powerful of these are in
the south, on the Deccan plateau, and in the west, while the north
remains most culturally active. A line of Mauryas springs up in
Goa in the sixth century AD, but the connection between them and
the great Mauryas is unknown.
Shung
Empire :
185 - 78 BC :
General
Pusyamitra Shung, the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan forces,
destroyed the Mauryans and created his own dynasty. Despite losing
half of the former Mauryan territories to Bactria and various minor
kingdoms, the Shung remained dominant in the east, up to the border
of the now Indo-Greek Punjab. They also persecuted Buddhists, who
were welcomed and protected by the neighbouring Bactrians.
(Additional
information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha.)
185
- 149 BC :
Pushyamitra
Shung : Dynasty founder.
c.175
BC :
Kharavel of Kaling attacks Magadh at the same time as Demetrius
of Bactria invades Magadh from the west, crossing the Ganges for
the first time. Rather than press home his own attack, Kharavel
turns on the Bactrian king and forces him to retreat.
c.166
BC :
For a second time, Kharavel of Kaling marches his army towards the
old enemy, Magadh, and its Shung king, Brihaspathimitra (perhaps
meaning viceroy, as his father is still in overall command), who
agrees peace terms before any blood is shed.
c.150s
BC :
The Sakas are displaced from Ferghana by the Greater Yuezhi, an
event that is connected with the migration of the Greater Yuezhi
across Da Yuan (the Chinese term for Ferghana). These mass migrations
of the second century BC are confused and somewhat lacking in Greek
and Chinese sources because the territory concerned is beyond any
detailed understanding of theirs. Whatever the reason, the Saka
king transfers his headquarters to the south, across the Hanging
Passage that leads Jibin. This is part of a southwards trend for
the Sakas, and by approximately the mid-first century BC, Saka kings
appear in India.
149
- 141 BC :
Brihaspathimitra
/ Agnimitra : Son.
Governor of Vidisha during his father's lifetime, in this capacity
Agnimitra campaigns in the south-west against Yajnasen, the ruler
of Berar (Vidharba). He successfully divides the kingdom in two
and parcels it out between Yajnasen and his estranged cousin, Madhavasen
(who had sought Pushyamitra's help). Both kings accept Pushyamitra's
suzerainty.
141
- 131 BC :
Vasujyeshth
: Son and successor according to the Matsya Puran.
141
- 131 BC :
Sujyeshth
: Son and successor according to the other Purans.
131
- 124 BC :
Vasumitra
or Sumitra : Brother. Also credited with repulsing Demetrius
of Bactria.
124
- 122 BC :
Andhrak
Pulindak
Ghosh
122
- 119 BC :
Vajramitra
bef
110 BC :
Bhagabhadra
: Mentioned by the Purans.
110
BC :
The Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha in central India records that the
Indo-Greek King Antialcidas sends an ambassador to the court of
the Shung king Bhagbhadra at or before this date.
c.100
- 70 BC :
Philoxenus briefly rules the whole of the remaining Indo-Greek territory.
He may even extend his rule as far as the city of Mathura (in modern
Uttar Pradesh), according to an inscription there. From 95 BC the
territories fragment again, with the western kings regaining their
territory as far west as Arachosia. Some time after 70 BC, Mathura
is lost to Indian kings, as is south-eastern Indus (Punjab).
83
- 73 BC :
Devabhuti
/ Devabhumi : The last independent Shung king. Assassinated.
73
- 71 BC :
Devabhuti
is assassinated by a slave girl on the orders of his minister. Within
two years the Shung dynasty is replaced in political dominance by
the Kanavas.
71
- 30 BC :
Although
the weakened Shung kings have been allowed since 71 BC to retain
their throne as mere puppets of the Kanava rulers, in 30 BC, both
they and the Kanava are swept away by the conquering Andhras from
the south.
Kanava
Dynasty :
71 - 26 BC :
The Kanava (or Kanva) dynasty of the kingdom of Magadh replaced
the Shung in 71 BC. They ruled the eastern section of the once-great
empire, with borders probably more akin to Magadh's ancient territory.
The much-reduced Shung kings were allowed to remain on their throne,
but were politically emasculated in an obscure corner of the kingdom.
The Kanavas (or Kanvas) also subdued the once-mighty Satvahanas
in southern India for a time.
71
- c.66 BC :
Vasudeva Kanva : Former minister of the last Shung king.
c.66
- 52 BC :
Bhumimitra
c.57
BC :
Indo-Scythian
King Azes consolidates Saka territory by absorbing that of a rival
king, presumably when the death of the latter king leaves his territory
unguarded. The Sakas also capture Modura around this time (Mathura
in Utter Pradesh, northern India). However, in the same year the
Indo-Scythians are repelled from the area of Ujjain by King Vikramaditya
of Malwa after occupying it for perhaps two decades or more. To
commemorate the event Vikramaditya establishes the Vikrama era,
a specific Indian calendar that used 57 BC as its starting date.
![Map of Central Asia & India c.50 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-50BC_full.jpg)
By
the period between 100-50 BC the Greek kingdom of Bactria had fallen
and the remaining Indo-Greek territories (shown in white) had been
squeezed towards eastern Punjab. India was partially fragmented,
and the once tribal Sakas were coming to the end of a period of
domination of a large swathe of territory in modern Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and north-western India. The dates within their lands
(shown in yellow) show their defeats of the Greeks that had gained
them those lands, but they were very soon to be overthrown in the
north by the Kushans while still battling for survival against the
Satvahanas of India
c.52
- 40 BC :
Narayana
c.40
- 30 BC :
Susarman
26
BC :
Both
the Shung and the Kanava are swept away by the conquering Andhras
from the south. Northern India is dominated either by the south
or by invaders from the west for the next two and-a-half centuries.
Magadh as a recognisable entity effectually ceases to exist. Instead,
it re-emerges as Bihar, which is fought over by successive regional
rulers, including those at Delhi and in Bengal.
Middle
Kingdoms of India :
Following the destruction of the Mauryans, India had divided into
a mass of major and minor kingdoms. Towards the end of the Iron
Age in India, the Indo-Parthians took control of areas of north-western
India, followed immediately by the Kushan people who founded an
empire which stretched from the west and covered much of India right
down to the south. They entered India at some point between about
AD 90-112 and immediately conquered the Indo-Scythians and set their
borders to include Punjab and parts of modern Uttar Pradesh. A later
ruler annexed Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kashmir, Malwa, Rajputana, Saurashtra,
and extended his rule as far as Khotan (southern India).
The Kushans were toppled between around 230-250, and replaced as
the dominant power in northern India by the Guptas. While subjugated
by the Guptas, the Kushans were finally conquered by the Kidarites,
a group which was related to the Hephthalites who had taken the
territory of the Kushanshahs to the west. The Sakas were also able
to rise to renewed prominence in some areas of India, although they
were opposed by the Satvahanas and eventually conquered by the Guptas.
In
the Deccan, various small kingdoms emerged, but the Vakataks and
the Pallavas both created large kingdoms in the fourth century which
covered swathes of central India and extended north and west. In
the south various small but regionally-dominant kingdoms also emerged,
fought against one another, and vanished back into obscurity, sometimes
within the space of a century or so. The Cheras and the Cholas seemingly
rose and fell in tandem, possibly destroyed at the end of the second
century AD by the obscure Kalabhras who invaded Tamil country, displacing
native dynasties.
61
- 67
:
According
to tradition, it is now that the Indian Buddhist monk Kashyapa Matanga
introduces Buddhism into China. This follows the Chinese Emperor
Ming sending a delegation to India after he has dreamt of a golden
idol that is interpreted as being a depiction of the Buddha. The
White Horse Temple is established in the imperial capital at Luoyang.
Gupta
Dynasty :
AD 320 - 550 :
The Guptas were the descendants of an obscure line of local rulers,
probably in Bihar (often linked to western Bengal), the heart of
former Magadh rule. They first rose to power in the third century,
at around the same time as the Kushan empire in northern and western
India was fading. By the fifth century they controlled India from
the Himalayas to the River Narmada, and the Bay of Bengal to the
Arabian Sea - the subcontinent's second great empire which reunited
most of India. Their capital was at Pataliputra (modern Patna, in
the northern state of Bihar), and this was the last great flourishing
of the Magadh kingdom, which by now was perhaps 1500 years old.
(Additional information by Madhu Nimkar & Sanjeev Kumar.)
c.260
- 280 :
Sri-Gupta
: Prayag-based Kushan vassal.
c.280
- 300 :
Ghatotkach
: Son. 'Maharaja'. Kushan vassal?
c.300
- 320 :
By now the Guptas have established themselves and rule a few small
Hindu kingdoms in Magadh. The son of Ghatotkacha, Chandragupt, succeeds
his father as a local chief within Magadh (covering parts of the
modern Bihar state). He increases his power and territory by marrying
Princess Kumaradevi of the Lichchavi tribe, which controls northern
Bihar and perhaps Nepal. Their union by marriage enhances the power
and prestige of Chandra's new kingdom, which by c.320 encompasses
territory from the Ganges to Prayaga (modern Allahabad). At this
time, Chandragupt decides to assume the imperial title 'Maharajadhiraja',
at a formal coronation, which also seems to signal the start of
the Gupta era as well as Gupta coinage.
c.300
- 330 :
Chandragupt
I / Paramabhagvata : Son. Brought Guptas to power. m daughter
of the king of Nepal.
330
- 370 :
Samudragupt
/ Parakramah : Son. Title used: 'Parakramah', 'All Powerful'.
c.340
:
Early in his reign, Samudragupt takes the kingdoms of Shichchhatra
and Padmavati. Then he attacks the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas,
the Maduras, and the Abhiras, all of which are tribes in the region.
The mighty Pallavas of south-eastern India are also defeated. He
incorporates over twenty kingdoms into his realm and his rule soon
extends from the Himalayas to the River Narmada and from the Brahmaputra
to the Yamuna.
The
disruption caused by his various campaigns possibly leads to the
emergence of several tribes as minor regional kingdoms in their
own right, especially in the more distant south. It seems likely
that one such case involves the Western Gangas, who now carve out
a small but prominent kingdom in the Mysore area of Karnataka, as
do the Kadambas of Banavasi (in coastal Karnataka).
![Coins issued by Chandragupt I](Guptas_ChandraCoins01_full.jpg)
The
Guptas issued a large number of gold coins, the two sides of this
example being of a 'King & Queen on Couch / Vaikuntha' type
from the reign of Chandragupt I
370
:
Following Samudragupt's reign, there is a possibility that his eldest
son, Ramgupt, succeeds him. However, Ramgupt is a shadowy figure
whose existence is in question. If he exists at all it seems he
embarks on an ill-planned campaign against the Sakas in Gujarat
and is trapped along with his army. Rescued by his brother he is
soon deposed and killed by that same brother, Chandragupt II.
Ramagupta?
: Son.
370
- 375? :
Kachagupta? : Uncle? Brother of Samudragupta?
c.375?
:
Kachgupt is another mysterious figure in the dynasty. His name is
not listed in genealogical information available through the various
inscriptions discovered, including the Allahabad Pillar inscriptions.
Ramagupta and Kachgupt may be one and the same, but it also seems
possible from numismatic evidence that they reigned in turn after
Samudragupt, although the order could be interchangeable. It is
also possible that Kachgupt ruled briefly, prior to the official
succession of Chandragupt II, and that Ramgupt issued his own copper
coinage (no gold coins have been found) in opposition to him.
375
- 414 :
Chandragupt
II / Vikramaditya : Brother.
375
- 409 :
Chandragupt expands the kingdom westwards, defeating the Western
Sakas in a campaign which lasts until 409. He also defeats the Bengali
(Vanga) chiefdoms, allowing him to extend his control from coast
to coast, and to establish a second (trading) capital at Ujjain.
In 395, the Sakas are finally finished off as a regional power.
His daughter, Prabhavatigupt, marries the Vaktak king, Rudrasen
II, and following his early death, governs the kingdom as regent
for twenty years, uniting it to her father's empire during that
time.
At
the same time, around 365, there is no evidence of any Kushan kings
in their eastern state in Punjab after the reign of Kipunad. They
are first subjugated by the Guptas and then overthrown by the invading
Kidarites who claim to be the rightful successors of the Kushans
and Kushanshahs.
c.410
- 413 :
After finishing his campaigns both in the east and west of India,
Chandragupt proceeds northwards to subjugate the Hephthalites and
the Kamboja tribes which are located in the west and east Oxus valleys
respectively. Then he proceeds across the Himalayas and reduces
the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and other minor peoples, drawing their lands
into India proper. The journey is a remarkably long one for an Indian
king. Very rarely, apart from Chandragupt of the Mauryan empire,
do they cross the Hindu Kush.
415
- 455 :
Kumaragupta
I / Mahendraditya : Son.
c.430s
:
Khingila is the most famous of the Alchon leaders, heading the campaigns
in Gandhara which take control of the region from the Kidarites.
In the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, he is mentioned as Shengil,
where he is considered the king of India. References to other kings
called Khingila are made in various sources, such as a garnet seal
with the inscription 'Eshkingil the Lord of Rōkan'.
c.455
:
The accession of Kumargupt had seen the continuation of his father's
secure empire under his able rule. However, the last days of his
reign are less comfortable, as the empire is threatened by invasions
by the Pushyamitras of central India. At a point somewhere around
the same time, the Kidarites seize Kabul and venture east into Punjab.
They reach the kingdom's borders near Doab or Malwa, where they
are repulsed by Kumaragupta's successor, Skandagupta.
455
- 467 :
Skandgupt / Kramadityah : Son. Last great Gupta ruler.
455
- c.467 :
The early years of Skandgupt's reign are marked by violent civil
war between the sons of Kumargupt. Skandgupt manages to defeat his
rivals and secure the throne. However, continual threats arise,
first from the Pushyamitras whom he defeats, and then from the Hephthalites
who invade from the north-west. They are repulsed around AD 467,
but the empire is sapped of resources and begins to decline. There
may be a partition of the empire, or at least a semi-independent
sub-division of it, but the main branch rules from Malwa. It is
unclear where the other branch is based or how much power it has,
and dates for all remaining rulers are uncertain.
c.468
- 473 :
Narasimhagupt Baladitya Gupt : Son of Purugupt. Ruled from
where?
c.470
:
Narasimhagupt drives the Hephthalites from the plains of northern
India, but the Kidarites sense an opportunity in the increasing
fragility of the empire and begin menacing its borders.
c.469
- 471? :
Purugupt
/ Sri Vikram / Vikramaditya : Brother of Skandgupt and
rival.
472
- 475 :
Kumargupt II : Ruled from where?
c.475
- 495? :
Buddhgupt : Uncle of Kumargupt II. Ruled from Malwa.
480s
- 500 :
The Hephthalite king, Toramana, breaks through the Gupta defences
in the north-west, and much of the empire is overrun by the Huns
by 500. The empire disintegrates under Toramana's attacks, and those
of his successor, Mihirakul. The Hephthalites conquer several provinces
of the former empire, including Malwa, while Gujarat, and Thaneshwar
break away under local dynasties. The surviving Guptas are forced
south and east, to Jabbalpur (in modern Madhya Pradesh) and North
Bengal, where they establish minor Gupta holdings.
c.496
- 500? :
Prakasaditya : Identified by coinage only. Same person
as Purugupt?
c.499
- 543? :
Bhanugupt
: Son. Ruled from Malwa until it was lost by 500.
500
- 530s :
It
appears from inscriptions that although the Guptas are much diminished,
they continue to rule in small pockets, one of which is in the Jabbalpur
region of the Narmada Valley (in 528). They continue to resist the
Huns and ally themselves to the newly independent kingdoms, including
Thaneshwar, to drive the Huns from most of northern India by the
530s.
![Map of India c.AD 500](Map_AD500_full.jpg)
The
vast empire of the Guptas encompassed much of northern India at
this time, although the south remained a fairly stable patchwork
of smaller but persistent kingdoms which constantly strove to outdo
each other when it came to expanding their own borders - the empire
is shown immediately prior to its break-up
fl
508 :
Vainyagupt
: Ruled from Jabbalpur?
c.540
- 550 :
Vishnugupt
490-507 : Ruled from North Bengal?
c.550s
:
Vishnu
Gupta is one of the lesser Guptas from the tail end of the dynasty,
and is generally recognised as being the last of them to hold any
real authority during his ten year reign. His rule covers at least
North Bengal (in 543-544). Shortly afterwards, the Sassanids of
Persia make conquests in India and the Pratihara dynasty of Gujarat
emerges.
late
6th cent :
Jayagypta
: Known only from a few copper coins.
fl c.600 :
Samachar
Dev Gupt / Devgupt : In Malava. Known only from a few gold
coins.
606
:
Dev Gupt is killed by Harshavardhan of Thaneshwar in revenge for
having arranged the murder of the preceding Thaneshwar king through
treachery.
Thaneshwar
Kingdom (Sthanviswara / Thanesa) :
c.AD 580 - 647 :
Thanesar is a small region in northern India, centred on the Ganges
Plain. Now part of Haryana state, during the seventh century, it
was known as Thaneshwar, or Sthanviswara of Srikanth Janapad. The
Thaneshwar kingdom was formed by newly independent princes following
the disintegration of the Gupta empire as it came under relentless
attack by the Kidarites and Hephthalites. With northern India in
danger of being entirely overrun by these barbarians, Thaneshwar
allied itself to the reduced Gupta rulers, along with other local
kingdoms, and together they forced out the invaders by the 530s.
Harshavardhan
became one of the most illustrious of Indian emperors. At the peak
of his reign, his kingdom covered Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Orissa, Bengal and the entire Gangetic belt as far as
the River Narmada. Harshavardhana belonged to the Pushyabhuti dynasty
(which was founded by Pushyabhuti, a Shiva worshipper). History
knows of him and his ancestors through several plates, seals, inscriptions,
coins (at Banskheda, Madhuban, Nalanda, Sonepat, and Nabha), and
texts such as the Harshacharita by Banabhat and the accounts
(Si-yuki) of the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.
The
Pushyabhutis were probably vassals of the Malwa kings and later
the Gupta kings, but after the Hunnic invasion they declared their
independence. The Madhuban / Sonepat copper plate inscriptions list
some of the kings who were part of this dynasty.
(Additional
information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksh.)
fl
510 :
Naravardhan
: Probably a Malwa or Gupta vassal.
Rajyavardhan
I : Son. Vassal ruler.
?
- 580 :
Adityavardhan
: Son.
Vassal ruler.
580
- 606 :
Prabhakarvardhan
: Son. Threw off overlordship?
Prabhakarvardhan
is an independent monarch who uses the prefix 'maharajadhiraj' before
his name. He establishes matrimonial relations with the Maukharis
by marrying his daughter, Rajashri, to their king, Grahavarman.
Prabhakarvardhan is a Shaivite and a sun worshipper. Along with
his son, Rajyavardhan, he repels Hun attacks and comes to be known
as 'the lion to the Hun deer'.
606
:
Rajyavardhan
II : Son. Murdered.
606
:
Immediately after his succession, Rajyavardhan's brother-in-law,
Grahavarman of the Maukharis, is killed by Deva Gupta, the last
of the Gupta kings. Rajyavardhan's sister is taken prisoner, and
Rajyavardhan attacks Malava and its king, defeating him. Then Shashank
of the Gaud kingdom feigns friendship so that he can kill Rajyavardhan
at the behest of Dev Gupt.
c.606
- 647 :
Harshavardhan
/ Harsh Vardhan : Brother. Reunited large parts of northern
India.
606
:
Harshavardhan, Harshavardana, or Siladitya as he is also known,
is sixteen when he accedes to the throne. He swears revenge and
defeats Shashank of the Gaud kingdom (with assistance from the Varman
king, Bhaskaravarman), kills Deva Gupta (ending the Gupta line of
kings), and frees his captive sister.
The
context for the Hun rulers Toramana and Meghavahana (presumably
this is an Indianised form of his actual Hun name) in the Rajatarangini
links them with the reign of Harshavardan of Thaneshwar who can
be dated fairly precisely. This seventh century dating is compatible
with the designs and inscription styles of their coins and gives
about two centuries for the currency of Toramana's coins in Post-Hephthalite
Kashmir.
![Harshavardhana](Thaneshwar_Harshavardhana01_full.jpg)
Harshavardhana
controlled a large empire across northern India which may have included
governance of the post-Hephthalite empire Huns of Kashmir
c.625
:
Following
Shashank's death, his Gaud kingdom falls apart and the region descends
into anarchy until it is conquered by Harshavardhan.
During his reign, Harsh also subdues the Maitreks who rule Vallabhi,
and the Gurjars who are also in the west of India, along with Magadh
(Bihar), and Bengal (Gaud), Orissa is also captured. Whether or
not his conquests in the Orissa region deliver him the subjugation
of the Eastern Gangas is unknown.
Bhaskaravarman, the king of Kamarup (Assam), is Harsh's close ally,
while his daughter is married to Dhruvsen II of Vallabhi (whom he
had earlier defeated). Harsh shifts his capital to Kannauj.
647
:
Harsh dies without an heir. His former minister seizes the throne,
but the empire breaks up into a patchwork of fighting states and
petty kingdoms that does not reform into one kingdom. Kannauj itself
becomes home to a Rajput kingdom. For the next 300 years India's
main events occur in the southern plateau, beginning with the rise
of the Chalukyas.
647
:
Arjun : Former minister.
647
:
The Chinese emperor, T'ai Tsung, sends an emissary to Thaneshwar
expecting him to meet Harshavardhana, but instead the emissary finds
the usurper, Arjun, on the throne. Arjun allegedly tried to take
him prisoner, but the emissary escapes to Tibet and seeks help there
in defeating Arjun. The usurper is taken prisoner and sent to the
Chinese court.
![Map of Central Asia AD 600-700](Map_CentralAsia_AD700_full.jpg)
By
the beginning of the seventh century AD, Göktürk power in southern
Central Asia was waning while the Sassanids had established a degree
of control over the southernmost parts of this region, and various
city states had emerged in Sogdiana
c.684
:
Bhogverma
: King of Magadh. His daughter m Shiv Dev II, king of Nepal.
Badami
Chalukyas :
AD 543 - 753 :
The
Chalukyas formed a powerful dynasty which was founded by Pulakeshi
I, who originated from a place called Vatapi (now known as Badami,
in Bagalkot, Karnataka state). At its height between the sixth and
twelfth centuries the Chalukya kingdom ruled large areas of central
and southern India, mostly towards the western coast. During this
period, they ruled as three related, but individual dynasties. The
earliest dynasty, known as the 'Badami Chalukyas', ruled from their
capital at Vatapi from the middle of the sixth century. The Badami
Chalukyas began to assert their independence when the Kadamba kingdom
of Banavasi declined, and they rapidly rose to prominence during
the reign of Pulakeshi II. The dynasty was previously thought by
some scholars to have migrated from Central Asia, a relative of
Iraq's Seleukiya tribe, but that idea has since been rejected.
The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history
of southern India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka.
The political atmosphere in southern India shifted from smaller
kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of the Badami Chalukyas.
For the first time, a southern Indian kingdom took control and consolidated
the entire region between the Kaveri and Narmada rivers. The rise
of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas
trade and commerce, and the development of a new style of architecture
called 'Chalukyan architecture'.
(Additional information by Madhu Nimkar and Abhijit Rajadhyaksha.)
c.500
- 520 :
Jaysimha
Vallabh : Mentioned as a vassal chieftain under the Kadambs.
c.520
- 540 :
Ranarang
: Son.
543
- 566 :
Pulakeshi
/ Pulakesi I : Son.
c.550
:
It seems likely that it is the Chalukyas who inherit the territory
of the former Vaktak kingdom after the latter's swift decline and
disappearance in this century. The disappearance of the last of
the Guptas at around the same time also presents an opportunity
to expand Chalukyan control, so that the Kadamba king of Banavasi
can be subjugated and made a vassal. The Cheras of south-western
India are also conquered (according to an inscription), and their
northern neighbours, the Western Gangas, accept vassal status.
566
- 597 :
Kirtivarman
I : Son.
597
- 609 :
Mangalesh
: Brother.
c.608?
:
Mangalesh manages to force the Kalachuri king to flee, taking his
lands, which consist of northern Maharashtra, Malwa and the western
Deccan.
609
- 642 :
Pulakeshi
/ Pulakesi II : Son of Kirtivarman.
615
:
Pulakeshi conquers the eastern Deccan, taking territory corresponding
to the coastal districts of modern Andhra Pradesh from the Vishnukundina
kingdom, as well as territory from the Pallavas. He appoints his
brother, Kubj Vishnuvardhan, as viceroy whilst also conquering the
Cheras and Cholas in the south of India (according to inscriptions).
The kingdoms of the south - Cheras, Cholas, and Pallavas - subsequently
team up to form a coalition to defeat the Chalukyas, but that attempt
ends in defeat.
624
:
Kubj Vishnuvardhana declares his independence, ruling the Eastern
Chalukyas as a separate kingdom.
642
- 655 :
Civil war follows the death of Pulakeshi.
647
:
In the north, the last great power there, the Thaneshwar kingdom,
begins to break up after a former minister seizes the throne.
642
- 680 :
Vikramaditya
I : Son.
Chandraditya
: Brother and rival for the throne.
Adityavarma
: Brother and rival for the throne.
Jayasimha
: Brother and rival for the throne.
Amber
: Brother and rival for the throne.
670
- 674 :
The Pallav king, Mahendravarman II, is killed in a collective attack
by the Chalukyas, the Gangas and the Pandyas. As soon as his son,
Parameshvaravarman, gains the throne, he continues fighting the
Chalukyas (under the name of Vikramaditay I in Chalukya records).
He captures Kanchi and advances south to the River Kaveri. In 674
he fights the Battle of Peruvalanallur, near Trichinopoly, and is
victorious despite facing a huge coalition.
677
- 680 :
Parameshvaravarman of the Pallavas occupies Chalukyan territories
from which he withdraws only after the Chalukyan rulers agree to
pay a yearly tribute and accept Pallava overlordship, but not before
the occupation army annihilates several Chalukyan princes, nobles
and citizens. This victory enables the Pallavs to assert their hegemony
over the subcontinent.
680
- 696 :
Following the failed revolt by the south against Pulakeshi II, led
by the Cheras, Cholas, and Pallavas, Vinayaditya now also subjugates
the south (or at least the Chera part of it).
Vinayaditya
: Son of Vikramaditya.
696
- 733 :
Vijayaditya
: Son.
710
- 711 :
The Umayyad Islamic general, Muhammad bin Qasim, sails to Sindh
and conquers both that and Punjab (in modern Pakistan), marking
major conquests for the caliphate. However, resistance emerges from
the Jats in Sindh.
733
- 746 :
Vikramaditya
II : Son.
734
:
The
awaited Chalukya invasion of the Pallav kingdom takes place, with
Vikramaditya II occupying Kanchi. The Pallavas soon recover, having
to fight the Cholas, Pandyas and Gangas in quick succession (with
the Cheras as allies at least against the Pandyas).
746
- 753 :
Kirtivarman
II / Rahappa : Son.
753
- 973 :
Kirtivarman II is the last king of the Badami dynasty. He is defeated
in battle against his supposed vassal, the ambitious Dantidurga
of the Rashtrakuts, and western Chalukyan power is eclipsed for
a period of two hundred and twenty years. The dynasty is only revived
in AD 973, as the Western Chalukyas.
Rashtrakut
Dynasty :
AD 753 - 973 :
The
Rashtrakuts (or Rashtrikas) were successors to the Chalukya dynasty
of Badami in the western-central Deccan plateau. Their reign of
over two centuries makes them one of the more notable dynasties
in the sub-continent. They started off as district heads for their
Chalukya masters, but soon become one of the most feared powers
in the region. They posed a threat to all their contemporaries,
including their overlords, the Chalukyas of Badami. Soon sweeping
to regional dominance, it seems that they also dominated at least
some of the southern kingdoms, notably the Cheras and, eventually,
the Western Gangas.
The word 'rashtra' in Sanskrit indicates region and 'kuta' means
chieftain, and the Rashtrakuts were officer-class material of long
standing. It seems that they were minor chieftains in Central India
prior to becoming a ruling dynasty. Their branches could be found
in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Later Rathod Rajputs claimed descent from
them, as did the Rattas of Soudatti (Karnataka).
(Information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha.)
Indra
: Chalukyan
governor of Achalpura (Ellichpur) in Berar.
746
- 753 :
Dantidurg secures the power of the Rashtrakuts by eclipsing that
of the Badami dynasty of Chalukyas. After the death of Vikramaditya
II, he attacks the Gurjar kingdom of Nandipuri, and then the Gurjar
Pratihar kingdom of Malwa. Buoyed by his success, he extends his
authority further over the eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh, all
the while assiduously avoiding any conflict with his Chalukya overlord.
In the end Kirtivarman II clearly sees him as being too great a
threat and attacks him in 753. Unfortunately the Chalukya king is
defeated, ending the power of the Chalukyas and allowing Dantidurga
to sweep to full and independent power.
753/754
- 756 :
Dantidurg
: Son, with a Chalukyan mother.
756
- 773 :
Krishna
I : Son or uncle.
765
:
The Silharas of the South Konkan are handed the governance of the
region by Krishna I.
773
- 780 :
Govind
II : Son. Overthrown.
Dhruv
Dharavarsh : Brother. Abdicated in favour of his son.
780
- 813 :
Dhruva manages to defeat Vatsaraja of the Pratihara dynasty in Gujarat,
leaving the Pratiharas weakened and ripe for defeat by the Palas.
![Kailashnath Temple at Ellora](Temples_Kailashnath01_full.jpg)
The
mighty edifice of Kailashnath Temple at Ellora, not far from Aurangabad
(in modern Maharashtra state), was constructed between about 725-755
793
- 814 :
Govind
III : Son.
800
:
After defeating the Pala king, Nagabhat of the Pratihars is himself
subdued by Govinda III as the Rashtrakut king campaigns north. He
then campaigns to the south, defeating the antagonistic Eastern
Chalukyas. It is at this time that the Silharas of the North Konkan
are handed the governance of the region by Govinda III.
813
:
Upon
the death of his father, Govind III claims the throne, but has to
defeat a challenge by his elder brother, Stambh. Once defeated,
Stambha offers no further threat, and instead serves as a viceroy
in southern territories.
814
- 878 :
Amoghvarsh
I : Son of Govind III. Acceded aged 14.
878
:
Pala king Devpal defeats Amoghvarsh.
878
- 914 :
Krishna
II : Son.
Stambh
: Brother.
c.900
:
The
Kakatiya vassal king, Gunda III, dies fighting for his overlord,
Krishna II, against the Eastern Chalukyas.
![Map of India c.AD 900](Map_AD900_full.jpg)
India
of AD 900 was remarkably unchanged in terms of its general distribution
of the larger states - only the names had changed, although now
there was a good deal more fracturing and regional rule by minor
states or tribes
Jagattung
: Son.
Predeceased his father.
914
- 929 :
Indra
III :
Son.
Indra
III strikes north, defeating the Pratihara king of Marwar, but then
returns south, allowing the Pratiharas to recover their territory.
929
- 930 :
Amoghvarsh
II : Assassinated by Govinda IV.
930
- 936 :
Govind
IV : Brother. Deposed.
936
:
Having lost much territory to the Eastern Chalukyas and made himself
very unpopular during his poor reign, Govinda is deposed by his
own vassals and Amoghvarsh is offered the throne.
936
- 939 :
Amoghvarsh
III / Baddiga : Younger brother of Indra III. Came to the
throne late in life.
939
- 965 :
Krishna
III : Son. Governed during his father's reign.
940
:
The Silharas of Kolhapur (southern Maharashtra) are handed regional
governance by Krishna III, and rule in the name of their overlord.
Defeated in Karnatka around this time, Krishna's forces are expelled
from the Northern Kalachuri kingdom.
949
:
At an unknown date King Butuga II of the vassal Western Gangas becomes
the son-in-law of Amoghavarsha III of the Rashtrakuts by marrying
his daughter, Revakanimmadi (presumably before the Rashtrakut king
dies in 939). Now, in 949, Butuga helps the Rashtrakuts to defeat
the Cholas at the Battle of Takkolam, where his arrow strikes and
kills the Chola monarch, Rajaditya.
965
:
Despite waging numerous wars in order to recover the glory of the
Rashtrakuts and playing an important role in rebuilding the empire,
Krishna III is overthrown by Tailapa II of the newly resurgent Western
Chalukyas.
965
- 972 :
Khottiga
Amoghvarsh : Brother.
972
:
The Paramar king, Siyaka II, plunders Manyakheta and Khottiga dies
fighting them. His nephew replaces him on the throne only to be
killed almost immediately by Tailap II of the Western Chalukyas.
972
:
Karrka
II : Nephew. Ruled for only a few months.
973
:
Indra
IV : Nephew of the vassal king of Talakad. Died 983.
973
:
Tailap II re-establishes the Chalukya dynasty after a period of
220 years. He also defeats the remnants of Rashtrakut power by beating
Indra IV and his vassal in the Godavari basin, Panchaladeva. Indra
ends his days in 982 by committing Sallekhan (fasting to death as
practised by Jain monks) at Shravanabelagola.
Western
Chalukyas (Kalyani Chalukyas) :
AD 973 - 1200 :
The
Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after two centuries of decline
while large swathes of India were under the control of the Rashtrakuts.
Tailapa II overthrew the Rashtrakut king, Krishna III and re-established
the Chalukyan kingdom. He recovered most of the territory which
had previously belonged to the Chalukyas, and his revived empire
came to be known as the Western Chalukya dynasty. The Western Chalukyas
ruled for another 250 years and were in constant conflict with the
Cholas, and their own Chalukya cousins, the Eastern Chalukyas of
Vengi.
(Information
by Madhu Nimkar.)
973
- 997 :
Tailap
II / Ahavamalla : Revived the Chalukya empire.
973
:
Tailap II re-establishes the Chalukya dynasty after a period of
220 years. He also defeats the remnants of Rashtrakut power by beating
Indra IV and his vassal in the Godavari basin, Panchaladeva. he
also beats off the Paramar king, Munj, with help from his ally,
the Yadav king Bhillam II.
980
:
The Cholas, experiencing a minor succession crisis, are momentarily
weakened, and Tailapa claims victory in a battle against their new
king, Uththama.
997
- 1008 :
Satyasraya
/ Sattiga / Irivabedanga : Son.
c.1000
- c.1011 :
The Eastern Chalukya kingdom falls under the influence of the Chola
ruler, Rajaraja, a fact that is not appreciated by Satyasraya. As
a result, Vengi becomes a bone of contention between the Cholas
and the Chalukyas. Satyasraya also suffers a rebellion by the client
Silharas of North Konkan, so he attacks the kingdom, his armies
advancing right up to the capital at Rajapur. He is less successful
against the Silharas of Kolhapur, though, as they defeat him and
found a kingdom there.
1008
- 1015 :
Vikramaditya
V : Nephew.
1015
- 1042 :
Jayasimha
II / Jagadekhamalla : Brother.
1020
- 1029 :
The Chalukyas take direct control of the Silhara kingdom of South
Konkan and retake Kolhapur.
1023
:
The Ghaznavids of Southern Khorasan conquer the Punjab.
1042
- 1068 :
Somesvara
I / Ahavamalla / Trilokamalla : Son.
Somesvara I is one of the greatest kings of the Western Chalukya
dynasty. During his reign he founds the city of Kalyani (modern
Basavakalyana) and moves his capital there. One of his queens is
Hoysala Devi, a Hoysala princess.
![Temple complex at Pattadakal](Temples_Pattadakal01_full.jpg)
The
temple complex at Pattadakal reached the peak of its development
under the Western Chalukya kings
1068
- 1076 :
Someshvar
II : Son. Deposed.
1070
:
The various regions which later form Bengal are brought together
under the control of the Sena dynasty.
1073
- 1075 :
Almost as soon as the weakened Eastern Chalukya kingdom has been
restored by King Vijayaditya, it is invaded by the Chedi king of
Dahala, Yasahkarnadev. The kingdom is extinguished in 1075 and it
seems that much of its territory is absorbed by the Cholas for a
time.
1076
:
Someshvar II is deposed by his more ambitious brother, Vikramaditya
VI, who is the greatest of the Western Chalukya kings and has the
longest reign in the dynasty. He earns the title 'Permadideva and
Tribhuvanamalla' (lord of three worlds). At his peak, Vikarmaditya
controls a vast empire stretching from the River Kaveri in southern
India to the River Narmada in central India.
1076
- 1126 :
Vikramaditya
VI : Brother.
1076
- 1116 :
Kirtivarma
of Hangal fights against the combined might of the Kadambs of Goa
and the Chalukyas when he tries to extend his borders. Ultimately
defeated, he ends up becoming a vassal of the Chalukyas.
1088
- 1099 :
Vikramaditya
conquers major portions of the former Eastern Chalukya kingdom,
attaching it to his own great empire until it is retaken by the
Cholas in 1099.
1102
:
A far more devastating phase of the long conflict begins between
Cholas and Cheras. The Chera capital at Mahodyapuram is burnt down
and destroyed, and the Chera king shifts his capital southwards
to Kollam (Quilon, a port city in Kerala). He defeats the Cholas
but is not able to regain his already-fractured kingdom thanks to
his enmity with the local Brahmins. His kingdom is now restricted
to South Kerala, where it also becomes known as Venad, and his followers
as the Cheras of Venadu. Internecine quarrelling further weakens
the state, so the Rama Varma abdicates the throne and soon dies.
1116
- 1123 :
The
king's Hoysala ally, Vishnuvardhan, changes sides and makes inroads
into Chalukyan territory. Vikramaditya eventually drives him out,
and he submits in 1123.
1118
- c.1130 :
Vikramaditya
manages to recapture the Eastern Chalukya lands and hold onto them
until his death. Shortly after the accession of his son, the territory
is absorbed by the Chola empire.
1126
- 1138 :
Somesvara
III :
Son.
Somesvara
III has to face a renewed invasion by the Hoysala king, Vishnuvardhan,
but is able to fend him off. He loses some territory as the Vengi
Chalukyas tried to throw off his control, but he is still able to
maintain most of the vast empire left to him by his powerful father.
However, his successors are not as strong, and they oversee the
gradual fading of the empire.
1138
- 1151 :
Jagadhekamalla
II
Even
though control over the Vengi Chalukyas has been lost, Jagadhekamalla
is still able to control the Hoysalas in the south and the Seuna
and Paramara in the north.
1151
- 1162 :
Tailap
III / Tail
1157
:
The Kakatiya king, Prolla II, defeats Tailapa III and takes him
captive. This results in other vassal states rising against the
Chalukyas. The Seuna and the Hoysal start to take territory, and
the Kalachuri king, Bijjala II, captures the royal capital at Kalyani
in 1157, forcing Tailap III to flee to Annigeri (in Dharwad district).
1162
:
Tailap is killed by the Hoysala king, ViraNarasimha, virtually ending
any claims to overall power by the Chalukyas.
1163
- 1183 :
Jagadhekamall
III
Jagadhekamall's rule is completely overshadowed by the emergence
of the Southern Kalachuri under Bijjala II who take control of Basavakalyana
and rule from there.
1184
- 1200 :
Someshvar
IV : Last Western Chalukya ruler.
1185
- 1186 :
In
1185, the Yadav vassal ruler, Bhillam V, shrugs off domination by
the Western Chalukyas and declares the independence of the Yadavs.
The following year, Lahore is conquered by the Ghurids who also
inherit Pallava Punjab, ruling much of northern India.
1189
:
The
people of the former territory of the Eastern Chalukyas are defeated
by the Hoysals and the Yadavs.
1200
:
Someshvar makes a short-lived attempt to revive the Chalukya kingdom
by defeating the waning Kalachuri kingdom. He manages to capture
Basavakalyan but fails to prevent the other vassal states, the Seuna,
the Hoysalas, and the Kakatiya dynasty, from completely overwhelming
the Chalukyan empire. In the end, the three former vassal states
divide the vast territory between the River Kaveri and the River
Narmada between themselves.
Early
Modern States / Moghul Empire :
The creation of the Delhi sultanate in 1206 began the creation of
one of India's greatest empires, but following the collapse of Moghul
power from 1707 onwards, the sub-continent fractured into a series
of small states, although such fractures had been appearing for
some time anyway, especially under Aurangzeb's rule. In fact, although
the Moghuls ruled much of India, they never entirely conquered it,
and even vassal states were prone to fits of independence.
1206
:
The
Delhi sultanate is founded by a slave of the Ghurid sultan, Mohammed
III, following the defeat of the Hindu Rajputs of Amer who had governed
much of the region in 1194. The sultanate begins in Lahore, but
subsequent rulers extend their territory eastwards and Delhi quickly
becomes the capital. Under later rulers, especially the Moghuls,
the sultanate rises to become one of the greatest empires in Indian
history, subjugating almost the entire sub-continent. Minor states
or independent cities also proliferate throughout India, including
those of Jodhpur and Mewar.
1221
:
The Indus Valley is under the Mongols.
1336
:
Tughlaq power fails to retain control of the Deccan and southern
India, and two brothers, Harihar (Hakka) I and Bukka Raya, take
the opportunity to lay the foundations of the Vijaynagar empire
in the south. They conquer many of the regional kingdoms, such as
Hoysal, Shambuvaraya, and the Reddis.
1398
:
Timur subjugates Multan (in modern Pakistan) through the efforts
of Pir Muhammad, his grandson through his son, Jahangir. Subsequently,
Dipalpur (in India) falls to the Persian ruler, causing destruction
in Delhi.
1490
:
The Bahamani sultanate on the Deccan begins to fracture and break
up, devolving into a series of states which includes Ahmednagar,
Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda.
1498
:
The Portuguese explorer, Vasco de Gama, reaches India by sea, and
traders follow close behind him, marking the first lasting contact
between India and Europe since the time of Alexander the Great.
The Vijaynagar empire in southern India is especially affected when
many of its ports are seized by the Portuguese.
1505
- 1510 :
The first Portuguese viceroy of India is appointed. Goa is made
the capital of Portugal's empire in the east in 1510.
1526
:
Most of India is ruled or controlled by the Moghuls from Delhi.
Some small states attempt to re-establish their independence during
rebellions or uprisings, but on the whole these are crushed by the
Moghul emperors. Their domination is not unopposed however, and
neither is it undefeatable. The Suri dynasty rules Delhi for fifteen
years after having ousted Emperor Humayun.
![Humayun's tomb](Moghuls_Humayun01_full.jpg)
Humayun's
tomb in New Delhi marks the end point of a remarkable reign which
saw him accede and then submit to exile after a decade of opposition,
primarily from the Afghan adventurer, Sher Shah Suri, only to reclaim
his throne fifteen years later then to die the following year in
an accident
1565
:
The
Vijayanagar empire in the far south is defeated at the Battle of
Talikota by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates which had only
recently been born out of the break-up of the Bahamani sultanate.
1646
:
After years of attacks and being repulsed, the Vijaynagar empire
is finally conquered by the sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
Many of the empire's largest vassal states immediately declare independence,
so the territorial gains made by the sultanates are limited. Those
vassals, Mysore, Keladi Nayaka, and the Nayaks and Nayakas of Chitradurga,
Gingee, Madurai, and Tanjore, all become powerful states in southern
India.
1707
:
Following the fractious reign of Emperor Aurangzeb, the Moghul empire
gradually collapses, with many small states regaining their independence
and new states appearing for the first time. These include Bengal,
Hyderabad, and Oudh, along with the Maratha empire and the many
Maratha subsidiary states.
The
arrival of the British sees these states slowly being conquered
or forced to submit to the new political power in the subcontinent.
1746
- 1748 :
The War of the Austrian Succession is a wide-ranging conflict
that encompasses the North American King George's War, two
Silesian Wars, the War of Jenkins' Ear, and involves
most of the crowned heads of Europe in deciding the question of
whether Maria Theresa can succeed as archduke of Austria and, perhaps
even more importantly, as Holy Roman Emperor. Austria is supported
by Britain, the Netherlands, the Savoyard kingdom of Sardinia, and
Saxony (after an early switchover), but opposed by an opportunistic
Prussia and France, who had raised the question in the first place
to disrupt Habsburg control of Central Europe, backed up by Bavaria
and Sweden (briefly). Spain joins the war in an unsuccessful attempt
to restore possessions lost to Austria in 1715.
The War of Jenkins' Ear pitches Britain against Spain between 1739-1748.
The Russo-Swedish War, or Hats' Russian War, is the
Swedish attempt to regain territory lost to Russia in 1741-1743.
King George's War is fought between Britain and France in the French
Colonies in 1744-1748. The First Carnatic War of 1746-1748
involves the struggle for dominance in India by France and Britain.
Henry Pelham, leader of the English government in Parliament, is
successful in ending the war, achieving peace with France and trade
with Spain through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Austria is ultimately
successful, losing only Silesia to Prussia.
British
Governors-General in India / East India Company :
AD 1766 - 1858 :
In January 1757, the sultan of Bengal captured Calcutta, which contained
the headquarters of the British East India Company. However, the
British general, Robert Clive, had allies within Bengal who helped
to defeat and dethrone the sultan at and after the Battle of Plassey
on 23 June respectively.
The
East India Company was now the effective master of Bengal through
the Bengal presidency, which was established between 1765-1766,
and then the position of governor-general which effectively ruled
all East India Company possessions in the sub-continent. However,
the intention of the company at this stage was still only to improve
trade with India rather than creating an empire. Governor-generals
of the East India Company are shown in green.
(Additional
information from Indian Frontier Policy, John Ayde (2010),
from An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet
Empire, James Stuart Olson, Lee Brigance Pappas, and Nicholas
Charles Pappas (1994), from The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol
7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, Gavin R G Hambly
(1991).)
1765
- 1772 :
Robert Clive, or 'Clive of India' secures British rule in Bengal
with the first and most powerful of its 'presidencies', and makes
the East India Company an extremely powerful player in Indian politics
between these dates.
![Clive of India](British_EEC_Clive01_full.jpg)
The
statue of Robert Clive (1725-1774), founder of the British presidency
of Bengal for the East India Company, can be found today on Horse
Guards Parade in London
1772
:
Two years after the Bengal famine claims millions of lives, Calcutta
is named as the capital of British India by the East India Company,
and the first governor-general is appointed. This marks the official
start of British governance in areas of India, although some historians
use the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey in 1757 as the start.
In
the same year, the Company invades Bhutan and captures the capital,
ending the Bhutanese threat to Koch Bihar. A peace settlement is
negotiated in 1774 but the agreement means that Koch Bihar is subject
to Company dictates which gradually replace the authority of the
kings in the quest to improve the region's infrastructure and the
rule of law.
1773
- 1785 :
Warren
Hastings : First governor-general of British-administered
India.
1775
- 1782 :
The First Maratha War takes place against the East
India Company. The empire becomes a looser confederacy, with political
power resting in a 'pentarchy' of five Maratha dynasties: the Peshwas
in Pune, the Sindhias (originally the Shindes), the Holkars of Indore,
the Bhonsles of Nagpur, and the Gaekwads of Baroda.
1778
:
After being visited by a deputation of American diplomats, Benjamin
Franklin and Silas Deane, France declares war on Britain in support
of the rebellion in North America, only too glad to make the most
of Britain's misfortune. In India, Hastings is forced to lend his
troops to a local ruler in order to crush an uprising which, if
it could succeed, would threaten Bengal itself and the East India
Company's headquarters in Calcutta. The French fleet encourages
rebellion against British interests, and French intriguing in India
continues until the end of the American War of Independence.
1786
- 1793 :
Charles
Mann Cornwallis
1793
- 1798 :
Sir
John Shore : Oversaw the reduction of the East India army.
1793
:
The
British are becoming a great power in India, opening up a global
trading network for the first time in history. They want to get
into the Chinese market but like other European trading nations
they have largely been kept out because China is self-sufficient.
It is the massively popular tea trade that finally drives Britain
to find a solution. If China doesn't have an urgent need for external
supplies then one could be created. A small amount of opium is already
being requested by Chinese traders, and with India the key to opium
growing, lots more can be supplied.
The East India Company begins selling opium to China in large quantities
in exchange for large quantities of tea. The profits are high but
so is the risk, so the British now send an embassy to China under
the command of Sir George McCartney to try and get favoured trading
nation status. The eventual meeting with the emperor (delayed because
the British will not kow-tow) is disappointingly negative, so the
East India Company decides to continue to smuggle in larger quantities
of opium.
1798
- 1805 :
Richard
Wellesley : Brother of Prime Minister Wellington. Later
Lord Lt of Ireland.
1802
- 1805 :
A situation of near civil war exists when two Maratha generals start
fighting between themselves. The Peshwa, Baji Rao II, chooses sides
but it is the other side that ultimately triumphs, and Baji Rao
flees to Bombay in September 1802 to seek help from the British.
The East India Company fights the Second Maratha War against
the infuriated Sindhias and the Bhosales of Nagpur but both are
defeated by the British, principally under General Arthur Wellesley,
younger brother of the governor-general, who fine-tunes the skills
that will later see him win the Peninsula War in Spain.
1805
:
Charles
Mann Cornwallis : Second term of office.
1805
- 1807 :
George
Hilario Barlow : Interim governor-general.
1807
- 1813 :
Sir
Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound : Lord Minto. Former viceroy
of Corsica (1794-1796).
1807
- 1809 :
Maharaja
Ranjit Singh of Lahore, the first Sikh king, annexes both Kot Kapura
and Faridkot to his kingdom (much of which is given as a jagir to
Diwan Mokam Chand). With British help, Gulab Singh regains Faridkot
in 1809. In that same year, Sahib Singh of Patiala enters into a
treaty with the British against Ranjit Singh.
1809
:
Afghan king, Shah Shuja, signs a treaty with the British which includes
a clause stating that he will oppose the passage of foreign troops
through his territories. This agreement is the first Afghan pact
with a European power, and it stipulates the undertaking of joint
action if there is any Franco-Persian aggression against Afghan
or British dominions.
1813
- 1823 :
Francis
Rawdon-Hastings : First marquis of Hastings.
1817
- 1819 :
The Third Maratha War results in a decisive victory for the
British against the Peshwa. The last peshwa, Baji Rao II, is defeated,
and the Maratha empire is largely annexed, bound by treaty to the
British Crown. The kingdoms of Indore, Gwalior, Nagpur, and Jhansi
became princely states, acknowledging British control.
1818
:
British rule of Orissa commences when Mukundadeva II of the Bhoi
dynasty of kings is imprisoned by the East India Company. The Bhoi
family thereafter becomes the supervisors of the Jaggannatha temple
at Puri.
1820
:
The General Maritime Treaty is signed in January between the rulers
of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain on the one hand
and Britain on the other. The island state of Bahrain, lying close
to these other Arabic states, accedes to the treaty in the following
February. The treaty prohibits piracy in the Persian Gulf, bans
slavery, and requires all usable ships to be registered with British
forces. It is designed to secure the lines of communication between
Britain and India.
1823
- 1828 :
William
Pitt Amherst : First earl of Amherst.
1823
:
The Afghans lose Sindh permanently to the British in India.
1824
- 1825 :
William Moorecroft, of the East India Company, arrives in Peshawar,
Afghanistan, while en route to Bukhara, east of Khiva (and now in
Uzbekistan), to trade for horses. He is killed in Balkh in 1825
while returning to India. The British in India turn an eye towards
Afghan affairs and the lack of central authority there.
![William Moorecroft of the East India Company](British_EEC_WilliamMoorcroft01_full.jpg)
William
Moorecroft of the British East India Company is seen here on the
road to Lake Mansarowar in Tibet, dressed in native style
1828
- 1835 :
William
Bentinck
1830
:
The
last of the Kachari kings of Assam dies without a heir and the East
India Company annexes the kingdom under the details of its Doctrine
of Lapse.
1835
:
The
Jayantiya kingdom in Assam is annexed by the East India Company.
The capital at Jaintiapur is abandoned and quickly falls into ruin.
Only the Ahom kings survive in Assam.
1836
- 1842 :
George
Eden : First earl of Auckland.
1838
:
Assam
is converted into a principality by the British East India Company,
ending the rule of the last remaining independent Assam kings, the
Ahoms.
1839
:
Britain decides that Persian and Russian intrigues pose a threat
to their control of India. To counter that perceived threat, it
is decided that Afghanistan will be used as a buffer state. A British
army marches to Kabul, triggering the First Anglo-Afghan War,
which sees a native ruler used as the British figurehead in the
country.
1841
:
In
the first days of the new year, a British naval task force enters
China's Pearl River carrying native Indian infantry. It is a highly
mobile force that the static Chinese defences are incapable of stopping.
Their key attack weapon is an almost-sixty-one metre-long (nearly
two hundred feet) iron vessel with swivel and pivot-mounted heavy
weaponry and a rocket launcher. The flagship Chinese junk is obliterated
in a colossal explosion when its powder store is truck by the rocket
launcher.
The
defences are breached, and the British ravage the river's shoreline,
storming the port of Ningbo. The Qing government sues for peace
at the very location at which, four hundred years before, Admiral
Zheng had given thanks after his great exploratory voyages. Here
they sign the first of 'The Unequal Treaties'. The British gain
trading rights in China, and five treaty ports on the Chinese coast,
one of which is the island of Hong Kong, while another is Shanghai.
1842
- 1844 :
Edward
Law : First earl of Ellenborough.
1842
- 1843 :
To the immediate north of the troublesome Afghanistan, Emir Nasr-Allah
of Bukhara achieves an unwanted level of notoriety in early Victorian
England after he has imprisoned and now executes the British envoys,
Charles Stoddart and Arthur Conolly. He also imprisons Joseph Wolff,
who enters Bukhara in 1843 in search of the missing envoys. Amused
by Wolff openly wearing his full ecclesiastical garb, the emir
performs a rare act of leniency by allowing Wolff to leave safely.
1844
- 1848 :
Henry
Hardinge
1844
- 1845 :
The Company annexes Sindh in 1844, and the Sikhs attack British
divisions at Ferozepur. The First Anglo-Sikh War is triggered
in 1845. The Sikhs fight well, but eventually succumb to the disciplined
British army following betrayals by some of their Dogra generals.
1848
- 1856 :
James
Broun-Ramsay : First marquis of Dalhousie. Former Gov-Gen
of Canada.
1848
- 1855 :
The Maratha state of Kolhapur is absorbed by the British upon the
death of the childless maharaja in 1848. Further Maratha states
are annexed in 1853 (Nagpur), and 1855 (Thanjavur). Also in 1848-1849,
the Second Anglo-Sikh War commences when the Sikhs resent
excessive British interference in their affairs. There is help from
Dost Mohammed Khan, the Afghan king but, yet again due to internal
dissensions, the Sikhs are defeated at Gujarat on 21 February 1849
and the Sikh kingdom is dissolved.
1855
:
Ghulam Muhammed Ghouse Khan of Arcot fails to produce a male heir
so, upon his death, his Carnatic kingdom is annexed by the East
India Company. The late nawab's uncle and former regent is Azim
Jah. In 1867 he is granted the title 'Prince of Arcot' in compensation
for the loss of the state.
1856
- 1858 :
Charles
Canning : Elevated to Viceroy in 1858.
1857
- 1858 :
The
Indian Mutiny (or Great Sepoy Rebellion) against British rule erupts
among East India Company native army units at Meerut, near Delhi,
but after some hard fighting in places it is suppressed, with Sikh
soldiers fighting alongside the British. The mutiny ends with the
recapture of Delhi by troops loyal to the East India Company. The
last Moghul emperor is deposed, as is the Maratha Peshwa, and the
British Parliament places India under the direct control of the
empire's Viceroys, whilst subject or allied princes rule various
vassal states.
British
Viceroys of India :
AD 1858 - 1947 :
The British Parliament's India Act of 1784 established dual control
of the East India Company, and centralised British rule in India
by reducing the power of the governors of Bombay (now Mumbai) and
Madras, and increasing that of the governor-general. After the British
government had to interpose directly to end the Indian Mutiny, or
rebellion, the Crown took control of the Indian possessions and
ended the East India Company's rule. Many of the princely states
were annexed by Britain, including Hyderabad and Oudh, although
local rulers were maintained on their thrones.
1856
- 1862 :
Lord
Canning : Former governor-general (1856-1858).
1862
- 1863 :
Lord
Elgin : Former governor-general of Canada.
1863
- 1869 :
Lord
Lawrence
1869
- 1872 :
Lord
May
1872
- 1876 :
Lord
Northbrook
1876
- 1880 :
Lord
Lytton
1876
:
Queen Victoria in Britain is hailed as the Queen-Empress of India.
1880
- 1884 :
Lord
Rippon
1884
- 1888 :
Lord
Dufferin : Former governor-general of Canada (1872-1878).
1885
- 1886 :
Britain captures Mandalay and Burma becomes a province of British
India.
1888
- 1894 :
Lord
Lansdowne : Former governor-general of Canada (1883-1888).
1893
:
The
Durand Line fixes the borders of Afghanistan with British India
for a century, splitting Afghan tribal areas, and leaving half of
these divided Afghans in what is now Pakistan.
1894
- 1899 :
Lord
Elgin
1899
- 1905 :
Lord
Curzon
1905
- 1910 :
Lord
Minto : Former governor-general of Canada (1898-1904).
1910
- 1916 :
Lord
Hardinge
1914
:
Afghanistan remains neutral during the First World War, despite
German encouragement of anti-British feeling and an Afghan rebellion
along the borders of British India.
1916
- 1921 :
Lord
Chelmsford
1921
- 1926 :
Lord
Reading
1926
- 1931 :
Lord
Irwin (Halifax)
1931
- 1936 :
Lord
Willingdon : Former governor-general of Canada (1926-1931).
1936
- 1943 :
Lord
Linlithgow
1937
:
Britain separates Burma from India.
1943
- 1947 :
Lord
Wavell : Last viceroy.
1947
- 1948 :
The post of viceroy (sub-king, or commander in the king's name)
of India is downgraded to that of governor-general of India upon
the eve of independence. Following the handover by Britain, native
governor-generals are appointed by their respective governments.
A
Direct Action day is called in 1947 by the Muslim parties (led by
Muhammed Ali Jinnah) who are demanding a separate homeland for Muslims.
Hindus and Sikhs are massacred in Muslim-dominated areas, leading
to a bloody Hindu retaliation. large-scale riots follow and the
decision is taken to partition India and create the country of Pakistan
as a homeland for Muslims in former north-western India. The new
country also gains the east of Bengal.
Modern
India :
AD 1947 - Present Day :
The dominion of India was formed on 15 August 1947 following the
official handover of power by the United Kingdom. It is bordered
to the north-west by Pakistan, to the north by China, Tibet, the
Himalayas and Nepal, to the north-east by Bhutan, to the east by
Bangladesh and Burma, and to the south-east by Sri Lanka. Initially
it was under the guiding hand of a governor-general, before coming
under the control of a democratically elected government.
The
province of Bihar, once the ancient kingdom of Magadh, again became
a state in its own right (more recently it has been subdivided into
Bihar and Jharkhand states). The princely states of Arcot, Bengal,
and Hyderabad, the Jat kingdoms, and the Maratha kingdoms of Baroda,
Bundelkhand, Indore, Gwalior, Jhansi, Kolhapur, Nagpur, and Thanjavur
were abolished, their territories becoming part of India's system
of states managed by governors. Twenty-two princely states of Rajasthan,
including Amer, Bikaner, Bundi, Mewar, Jaisalmer, Marwar & Jodhpur,
merged to form the Union of Greater Rajasthan, acknowledging the
maharana of Udaipur in Mewar as their head.
(Information
by Peter Kessler and Abhijit Rajadhyaksha, with additional information
from External Link: Pakistan 'shoots down two Indian jets'
over Kashmir (BBC).)
1947
- 1948 :
Lord
Louis Mountbatten : Of the Mountbattens. Governor-general
of India, 15 Aug-21 Jun.
1948
- 1950 :
C
Rajagopalachari : Governor-general of India, 21 Jun-26
Jan. Last governor-general.
1947 - 1949 :
The first war between India and Pakistan ignites over Kashmir just
two months after they become independent nations. Pakistani militia
is repulsed by the Indian army, but due to UN intervention part
of Kashmir remains occupied by Pakistan, which it names Azad Kashmir
while India refers to it as Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. The princely
states of Junagadh (Gujarat) and Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh), which
have Muslim rulers but an overwhelming Hindu population, are forced
into India by the Indian home minister, Vallabhai Patel. Pakistan
becomes an Islamic republic, whereas India becomes a secular republic
(in 1950).
1950
- 1953 :
North Korea's forces attack South Korea on 25 June 1950. A multinational
force made up primarily of troops from the USA, and Britain and
the Commonwealth nations (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand,
and India), goes in to support the south. The Korean War
lasts until a ceasefire is agreed in July 1953.
1956
:
On 1 November, the state of Rajasthan comes into being. The former
Rajasthan rulers, which include those of Amer, Bikaner, Bundi, Jaisalmer,
Malwa, Marwar & Jodhpur, and Mewar, give up their sovereignty
but enjoy privy purses.
1961
:
After fourteen years of demonstrations and strikes in favour of
independence from Portugal, the colony in Goa is invaded by the
Indian army and taken by force.
![Indian troops enter Goa](Modern_1961Goa01_full.jpg)
Indian
national troops enter Goa
1962
:
A land dispute with China leads to a Chinese invasion of India's
border territories. Indian troops face a humiliating defeat.
1965
:
Pakistan attacks India again over Kashmir, but is beaten back on
several fronts. With Soviet mediation Pakistan agrees to call off
the attack.
1970
- 1971 :
The Indian Parliament decides to abolish the institution of royalty,
and the following year the rulers of the former princely states
are de-recognised and their privy purses and titles snatched away
from them.
In
the same year, the Indo-Pakistan War is triggered after Pakistan
launches a pre-emptive strike on eleven Indian airbases. The war
lasts just thirteen days. Following this, East Pakistan succeeds
from West Pakistan to become Bangladesh.
1975
:
The eastern state of Sikkim (which is an Indian protectorate) merges
into India following a popular referendum.
1984
:
In order to weaken the power of the Akali political party in Punjab,
Congress encourages a Sikh fanatic demagogue called Jarnail Singh
Bhindrenwale. What follows is his secessionist movement for a separate
Sikh country named Khalistan. He unleashes a brutal terror campaign
with includes bomb blasts, Hindu killings, and the murders of pro-India
journalists and politicians, all with covert Pakistani support.
Bhindrenwale seeks refuge the holy Golden Temple of Amritsar and
virtually fortifies it, forcing the enactment of Operation Bluestar
by Indian troops. They storm the temple and Bhindrenwale is killed.
This act culminates into the assassination of Indira Gandhi and
the subsequent anti-Sikh riots of the same year.
1987
- 1990 :
India sends a peace-keeping force to maintain law and order in the
neighbouring Sri Lanka, which is in the middle of a civil war being
fought between the majority Sinhalese and the ethnic Sri Lankan
Tamils who are led by a revolutionary group called the LTTE.
1990
- 1991 :
The
Indian peace-keeping force is recalled. The following year Rajiv
Gandhi is assassinated by the pro-Tamil LTTE. Congress returns to
power and Narimha Rao becomes the next prime minister.
1998
- 1999 :
India conducts nuclear tests amidst reports of a secret Pakistani
nuclear programme which is supported by the Chinese. The following
year, Pakistan launches an operation in Kargil (supposedly to internationalise
the issue of Kashmir) after its soldiers occupy some unmanned border
posts disguised as irregulars. The Indian army successfully repulses
the attacks and reoccupies the posts. The USA intervenes and Pakistan
is compelled to call back its men.
2008
:
Pakistan is generally accepted to be the source of a terrorist attack
on the city of Mumbai (formerly Bombay). Islamic terrorists rampage
through the city, killing hundreds of people including several foreign
nationals. The Pakistani state is accused of sponsoring the terrorists,
all but one of which are killed.
2016
:
A
four-day Pakistani attack in January on an Indian air base in Pathankot
leaves dead seven Indian soldiers and six militants. In September
an attack on an army base in Uri in Indian-administered Kashmir
kills nineteen soldiers. India's retaliation occurs at the end of
the month when it carries out what it calls 'surgical strikes' on
militants in Pakistani Kashmir.
2019
:
A militant attack by one or more Pakistani groups takes place in
Indian Kashmir. It kills forty Indian troops - the deadliest to
take place during the three-decade-long insurgency against Indian
rule in Kashmir, albeit with long periods of peace during that time.
India retaliates and the situation becomes increasingly unstable.
At least one air force plane appears to be lost by either side (reports
vary and officials are keen to deny any losses at all), and artillery
shelling takes place on the ground.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsFarEast/
IndiaStates.htm#Nandas