ELAM
/ HALTAMTU / SUSIANA
Elam
was one of the longest-surviving kingdoms in history in one of the
oldest civilised areas in the world. It was founded by circa 2700
BC and was situated in south-western Iran, on the east bank of the
Tigris from modern Kuwait along the coast of the Persian Gulf (approximately
the modern region of Khuzestan and Ilam Province, the latter of
which inherits the former kingdom's name).
Culturally,
the kingdom achieved less than its advanced neighbours, and imported
much of what it needed, including writing from Sumer and architecture
from the later Babylon. From the few surviving records, it seems
the Elamite language bore no relation to any others; Semitic, Sumerian
or Indo-European, forming part of a group called Elamo-Dravidian
which reached into India. Elamite records are also extremely sparse
in recording local events, and large areas of their history are
almost totally unknown except through Sumerian records.
The
form of the kingdom's name, 'Elam' (meaning 'highland'), is Akkadian
(and through them, Hebrew), while in the original Elamite form it
was Haltamtu or Haltamti. It was also known in classical writings
as Susiana, from the city state of Susa which usually formed its
capital. The Old Testament claims Elam as a son of Shem, ancestor
of the Israelites, and founder figure of the kingdom bearing his
name. The Elamites, however, certainly were not Semites. Their language
is considered to be a linguistic isolate, not linked to later-arriving
language-speakers such as the Semites. The kingdom's four major
cities were Awan, Anshan, Simash, and Susa, the capital, a hundred
kilometres (seventy-five miles) east of the Tigris, in which the
rulers practised kingship by matrilineal descent, being referred
to as 'son of a sister'.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Wayne McCleese
(the list of Abraham's ancestors), and from External Link: Some
Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology, Jan Tavernier (PDF).)
from
7000 BC :
The
first traces of civilisation appear in the Elamite region. Susa
shows traces of early settlement.
c.4000
BC :
Susa
emerges as an important regional centre.
c.3200
- 2700 BC :
The
Proto-Elamite Period witnesses the development of a semi-pictographic
writing system. Susa begins to be influenced by the cultures of
the Iranian Plateau to the east, and dominates the lowlands to the
west of the Zagros Mountains. Approximately 400 kms to the south,
Anshan, in the modern province of Fars, becomes prominent and expands
in size, dominating the highlands of the southern mountain range.
Old
Elamite Period :
The
Old Elamite Period marks the beginnings of the historical era in
Elam and relations with the flourishing Sumerian city states. Three
dynasties of kings ruled, with the last of them forming a short-lived
empire. It seems that at various times, Anshan and Susa were ruled
as separate kingdoms, and were perhaps only briefly united within
one state. However, Sumerian writings start referring to them as
the land of Elam, suggesting an element of unity, perhaps as a loose
coalition of city states.
c.2600
BC
:
According
to the Sumerian king list, the ruler of the city state of Kish subdues
Elam.
Avan
/ Awan Kings :
The
founding of the Awan dynasty of Elamite rulers ended the hazy Proto-Elamite
Period, although precise details of their rule are extremely fragmentary.
Awan was one of Elam's four major cities, located to the immediate
north-west of Susa, and the first three kings are mentioned on the
Sumerian king list, in the fourth set of post-diluvian entries.
The first foreign rulers of Sumer, they briefly held dominance there,
having gained the kingship from Lagash or more probably Umma (although
these cities are missing from the list, and the dating is misaligned).
According
to the king list, a total of three kings of Awan ruled Sumer for
356 years, once (one dynasty) in Awan. This is the fourth set of
entries on the list comprising kings 40-42, but the text was destroyed
in this section. Here, List 1 is primarily used, backed up by List
2.
c.2550
- ? BC :
(Name
Unknown) : Ruled for ? years, holding dominance in Sumer.
(Name
Unknown) : Ruled for ? years, holding dominance in Sumer.
(Name
Unknown) : Ruled for ?/36 years,
holding dominance in Sumer.
Awan is defeated and the Sumerian kingship passes to Kish. It could
be possible that the following three kings are the same as the three
unnamed kings who had dominated Sumer. Their dates are much closer
to fitting in with those in which the kings of Awan could have seized
power from Lagash or Umma and ruled for about forty years.
fl
c.2450 BC :
Peli
Some
lists place three kings of Ebla after Peli as Awan kings. However,
the names seem to be Syrian ones: Igrish-Halam, Irkab-Damu, and
Ar-Ennum.
c.2450
BC
:
Eannatum
of Lagash extends his power to parts of Elam and the Persian Gulf,
and the succeeding rulers of Lagash engage in contests against Elam
for the next century or so.
c.2430
BC
:
Enshakushanna
of Uruk throws the Elamites out of Awan.
Tata
/ Taar / Tari
Ukku-Takhesh
Khishur
/ Hishur
Shushun-Tarana
Napil-Khush
Kikku-Sive-Temti
fl
c.2350/2325 BC :
Lukh-Ishshan
c.2350
BC
:
Elam
is reputedly conquered by Alusarsid of Akkad. At the same time a
kingdom or confederation known as Marhashi is emerging to the east,
on the Iranian Plateau.
fl
c.2320 BC :
Khishep-Ratep
/ Hishep-rasher : Vassal of Akkad?
Eshpum
: Ruled? Vassal of Akkad?
Ilishmani
: Ruled? Vassal of Akkad?
Epirmupi
: Ruled? Vassal of Akkad?
c.2300
- 2280 BC :
Khelu
/ Helu : Vassal of Akkad?
c.2280
- 2250 BC :
Khita
/ Hita : Vassal of Akkad?
c.2278
- 2270 BC
:
After
an attempted rebellion, Elam is re-conquered by Rimush of Akkad,
and real Elamite history can be traced from this point. The state
of Marhashi is now a cohesive entity, bordering Anshan to the east.
Shimpishuk
: Ruled?
Vassal king?
c.2240?
BC
:
Both
Marhashi and Kutik-Inshushinnak declares independence from Akkad
(although perhaps not immediately as it seems they are re-conquered
for a time), eventually throwing off Akkadian language influences.
The ruler conquers Susa and Anshan, forming a centralised and unified
kingdom.
c.2240
- 2220 BC :
Kutik
(or Puzur)-Inshushinnak :
Governor and general of Susa &
king of Awan.
Tazitta
I
c.2210
BC :
Marhashi overruns Elam for a time, and unites eastern efforts in
fighting against the Akkadian empire. A battle is fought near Akshak,
at the confluence of the Diyala and Tigris rivers between the two
states.
c.2193
BC
:
Elam
is overthrown by the Gutians as they sweep through southern Mesopotamia
from the Zagros Highlands, also destroying the Akkadian empire.
The new Simash dynasty eventually comes to power during a period
of instability.
Eparti
fl
before 2120 BC :
Tazitta
II
Simash
Kings :
Although
records are characteristically sparse, it seems that the invading
Gutians caused the downfall of the former ruling dynasty in Elam,
and their replacements, the Shimashki, faced a period of alternate
diplomacy and attack from the Gutians and Sumerians. Some names
may not be in the same order on all lists.
?
?
c.2050
BC :
Elam loses its capital at Susa when it is conquered by Shulgi of
Ur.
fl
c.2030? BC :
Gir-Namme
fl
c.2010? BC :
Enpi-Luhhan
fl
c.2007? BC :
Khutran-Temtt
fl
c.2004 BC :
Kindattu
c.2004
BC
:
Kindattu,
together with the people of Susa, sacks Ur and lead its king into
captivity. ending the third dynasty. With this threat removed, Elam
becomes a powerful kingdom, although it is pushed out of southern
Mesopotamia six years later by the Amorite city state of Isin. However,
Elam appears to hold on to Kish.
Indattu-Inshushinnak
I
Tan-Rukhurater
Indattu-Inshushinnak
II
Indattu-Napir
Indattu-Tempt
Eparti
Kings :
Under
the stronger Eparti kings the Elamites swiftly rose to become a
regional power, being contemporaneous with the Old Babylonian empire,
and threatening it and the other Amorite city states, such as Isin,
with conquest. The Eparti were also called 'of the sukkalmahs' due
to the title which their kings bore. In some lists the Eparti are
included as Simash/Shimashki kings. Details on rulers is extremely
sparse, and some names may not even be in the correct order.
Recent excavations (up to 2015) that have been led by archaeologist
Behzad Mofidi-Nasrabadi of Mainz University at the site of Haft
Tepe or Tappeh (approximately twenty kilometres from Susa) have
uncovered a workshop with an attached clay tablet archive that dates
to this period in which the city is a prominent centre in the Elamite
empire. The workshop records the expansion of commerce, arts, and
crafts. Physical evidence of this prosperity includes lavish grave
goods that have been found in the tomb of a female official, and
a well-crafted female figurine.
(Additional information from External Link: Archaeology.org.)
c.1970
BC :
Eparti
I
Eparti
II
fl
bef. c.1850 BC :
Eparti
III
c.1835
BC :
Kudur-mabug
: King of an Elamite state north of Susa? In Zagros Mountains?
c.1835
BC
:
Kudur-mabug,
apparent king of an otherwise unknown Elamite state to the north,
manages to install his son, Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa.
Shilkhakha
fl
after c.1830 BC :
Attakhushu
Tetep-mada?
fl
c.1792 BC :
Sirukdukh
c.1772
- 1763 BC :
Shimut-Wartash
c.1770?
- 1765 BC :
Elam apparently takes control of the city of Apum after the fall
of the kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia. Elamite rule is eventually
thrown out when the city of Andarig takes control there.
c.1763
BC :
Following an attempted invasion the previous year (during which
Ekallatum is conquered by Elam), the Elamites are defeated in southern
Mesopotamia by Hammurabi's Babylonian empire, and the kingdom begins
a period of vassalage to Babylon, still with their own kings, although
the region's previous political unity is probably shattered.
c.1763
- 1745 BC :
Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
: For a time the most powerful ruler in the area.
c.1750
BC :
Kudur Lagamar : King Chedorlaomer of the Bible, but existence
is unconfirmed.
c.1745
- 1730 BC :
Kuduzulush
I
c.1732
BC :
Elam loses control of Kish to the kings of Sealand.
c.1730
- 1700 BC :
Kutir-Nahhunte
I
c.1700
- 1698 BC :
Lila-Ir-Tash
c.1698
- 1690 BC :
Temti-Agun
I
c.1690
- 1655 BC :
Tan-Uli
c.1655
- 1650 BC :
Temti-Khalki
c.1650
- 1635 BC :
Kuk-Nashur
II
c.1635
- 1625 BC :
Kutir-Shilkhakha
I
c.1625
- 1605 BC :
Temti-Raptash
c.1605
- 1600 BC :
Kuduzulush
II
c.1600
- 1580 BC :
Tata
c.1595
BC :
It
appears that at the same time as they take control in Babylon, the
Kassites are able to devastate Elam.
c.1580
- 1570 BC :
Atta-Merra-Khalki
c.1570
- 1545 BC :
Pala-Ishshan
c.1545
- 1520 BC :
Kuk-Kirwash
c.1520
- 1505 BC :
Kuk-Nahhunte
: Plundered the temples of Amorite Akkad.
c.1505
- ? BC :
Kutir-Nahhunte
II
c.1500
BC :
Perhaps due in part (at least) to the devastation of Elam
of a century before, the kingdom has entered a slow decline into
obscurity.
Middle
Elamite Period :
The
Middle Period began as a poorly recorded period thanks to the Kassite
rule of Babylonia, but this was followed by a slow ascendancy into
an empire under three dynasties of kings from the city of Anshan.
Although Elam was a late arrival on the international scene, and
had limited influence outside Babylonia and Assyria, it cannot be
ignored as a significant force. The lack of international correspondence
relating to it probably comes from its rise after the period of
the Egyptian Armana archive and its distance from Syria. To be able
date any of these rulers, events that are noted in Babylonia have
to be relied upon.
Kidinuid
Kings :
The
Anshanites dynasties began with the Susa-based Kidinuids, who oversaw
the 'Elamisation' of Susa, while continuing to use the Akkadian
language on their inscriptions. The kings of this period were titled
'king of Anshan and Susa', indicating a renewed political unity
within Elam, or at least a claim to it. This is the most obscure
of the three Middle Period dynasties.
(Additional information from External Link: Archaeology.org.)
c.1500
- ? BC :
Kidinu
Inshushinak-sunkir-nappipir
: Some
lists place him last.
Tan-Ruhurater
II
Shalla
?
c.1400 BC :
Tepti-ahar
The
best-attested act of this period is Tepti-ahar's building of a new
settlement, called Kabnak (modern Haft Tepe or Tappeh), approximately
twenty kilometres from Susa. These kings leave no mark outside of
the western lowlands. However, with Elam in decline, Kabnak (Haft
Tepe) also declines. Some of its temples and palaces are abandoned,
and their materials are reused to build simple dwellings. The remains
of several hundred massacre victims of this period are found by
archaeologists in 2014-2015, piled on top of one another behind
one of the city's internal walls.
![Ruins of Kabnak (Haft Tepe)](Elam_Kabnak01_full.jpg)
Several
hundred people were massacred in this period and their bodies piled
into a mass grave behind one of Kabnak's city walls, for archaeologists
to find in 2014-2015, although the circumstances surrounding the
massacre are unknown
Igehalkid
Kings :
Ige-Halki
ruled a newly independent, and certainly reunified Elam, with the
lowlands of Susa in the west once more united with the highlands
of Anshan in the east. Elamite language continued to increase in
importance during this period. However, under the rule of the Igehalkids
the kingdom seems to have remained fairly inactive. Ten rulers are
known, but there may be more. The succession of kings was unusual
for the period in that the throne moved back and forth between the
descendants of two sons of Ige-Halki.
c.1350
- 1330 BC :
Ige-Halki
: Or from c.1400 BC.
c.1330
- 1310 BC :
Pakhir-Ishshan
: Son.
c.1320
BC :
Elam
is temporarily occupied by the Kassites.
c.1310
- 1300 BC :
Attar-Kittakh
: Brother.
c.1300
- 1275 BC :
Khuman-Numena
: Son.
c.1275
- 1240 BC :
Untash-Naprisha
: Son.
The
largest project undertaken by the dynasty is the construction of
a new city 40km from Susa. The city of Al-Untash-Naprisha is named
after its founder, and is devoted to Napirisha, the great god of
Elam, and Inshushinak, the patron deity of Susa. After the king's
death, his city assumed secondary status to Susa.
c.1240
- ? BC :
Unpatar-Naprisha
: Descendant of Pakhir-Ishshan.
Kiddin-Khutran
I : Brother.
Kiddin-Khutran
II : Descendant of Attar-Kittakh.
?
- c.1220 BC :
Napirisha-Untash
: Son.
c.1220
- 1200 BC :
Kiddin-Khutran
III : Son?
c.1230
BC :
Kiddin-Khutran
enters Babylonia twice to attack Assyria's puppet rulers there.
On the first campaign, Nippur is taken, while on the second Isin
is attacked. When Kiddin-Khutran dies there is a change of dynasty
in Elam.
Shutrukid
Kings :
It
is not known how this new dynasty came to replace the previous one.
Under the Shutrukids the kingdom again became a powerful force within
Mesopotamia, even being able to reach out and conquer Babylon. Unfortunately,
that expansion brought about the destruction of Elam and four hundred
years of direct Babylonian rule. Dates are extremely uncertain,
and do not entirely align with events in Babylonia.
c.1210
- 1190 BC :
Khallutush-In-Shushinak
c.1190
- 1160 BC :
Shutruk-Nahhunte
I : Rebuilt the kingdom.
c.1158
- 1155 BC :
Once
again a rising power, Shutruk-Nahhunte marries the eldest daughter
of the Babylonian king Melishipak, and appears to claim Babylonia
as his own. He is able to push the Kassites out, forming a short-lived
empire that encompasses Mesopotamia, with his eldest son on the
Babylonian throne.
c.1160
- 1155 BC :
Kutir-Nahhunte
III : Son. King of Babylon (1158-1155).
c.1155
- 1125 BC :
Shilkhak-In-Shushinak
: Brother.
c.1155
- 1135 BC :
While
his brother is later accused by Babylonian sources of having plundered
the country, Shilkhak-In-Shushinak claims to raid Babylonia and
Assyria repeatedly, and to control the area east of the Tigris as
far north as Nuzi, until being expelled by the new Isin kings of
Babylonia.
c.1125
- 1115 BC :
Khutelutush-In-Shushinak
: Result of probable relationship between his father &
sister.
c.
1115 - ? BC :
Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar
: Brother.
Neo-Elamite
Period :
The Middle Period ended with the sacking of Elam and further occupation
by Babylonia. Elam never quite recovered from this and the neo-Elamite
Period was one of Iranian and Syrian influence, and especially Assyrian,
and obscurity for the Elamites themselves.
(Additional
information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983).)
c.1120
- 760 BC :
Neo-Elamite Period I sees Elam's capital, Susa, sacked by the Babylonian
king, Nebuchadrezzar. The kingdom is badly damaged, and is absorbed
into Babylonia.
c.843
BC :
The
early Persians or, perhaps more accurately, the Parsua, receive
their first mention in history. The Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III,
records their existence on the Black Obelisk, which covers his campaign
of about this year. Their position is not precisely fixed but 'Pasua'
seems to lay in what is now Iranian Kurdistan (immediately east
of Kurdistan in northern Iraq), far to the north of Persis and the
heart of Persian settlement.
It
may be the case that there are two (or perhaps even three) distinctive
groups of 'Parsua' at this time, primarily in the Zagros Mountains
to the east and south-east of the Assyrians. This is apart from
a larger body which is settling the land immediately to the east
of Elam (and focussed around the city of Persis). Those groups in
the Zagros seem to drop out of the historical record, perhaps pushed
south by the greater numbers of the Medes or absorbed by them.
c.760
- 644 BC :
Neo-Elamite Period II sees Elam, under its Babylonian masters, controlling
the Persians to the east of Elam itself, who had begun to migrate
into the area from around 1000 BC. Elam and Babylonia often fight
side by side against external threats, especially that of the Assyrians.
Late
Elam / Susiana :
A
new Elamite state emerged from the centuries of Babylonian rule,
but it was not the powerful state of old. Records of the Elamite
rulers of this period are very poor, with only five kings recorded
from native sources, while sources from Mesopotamia record fifteen.
However, although the country was politically unstable and was under
constant threat of attack by Assyria, the Elamites still retained
control of the Persians to their south, whom they heavily influenced
culturally. They also occasionally threatened Assyria, and managed
to acquire wealth that made Elam the envy of its neighbours.
Elam probably only controlled the plain of Khuzestan on the western
flank of the Zagros Mountains. The highlands of Anshan were home
to the Persians, and groups that had only recently entered the area
inhabited the Zagros Mountains further north. These formed various
states that were at first very loose coalitions of peoples, with
names known to us only from Assyrian sources. These mention the
Medes, Mannaeans, Persians, and others, originally with large numbers
of kings, later as consolidated states. All of them contributed
towards a more uncertain political sphere to the east of Mesopotamia.
(Additional information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook
(1983).)
c.760
- 742 BC :
Khumbantahrah
742
- 717 BC :
Khumbanigash
I / Humban-nikash
720
BC :
Assyrian king Sargon attempts to attack Elam but is defeated by
the Elamites and Babylonians near Der. It seems likely that another
attack is mounted in 713 BC, as Sargon is surprised by a rebellion
in Tabal while his attention is focussed on Elamite lands.
Following
the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations
and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC,
Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions
- Tūr (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming
the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering
India (green)
717
- 699 BC :
Shuttir-Nakhkhunte
/ Shutruk-Nahhunte II : Murdered by his brother.
699
- 693 BC :
Khallushu
: Brother. Assassinated.
694
BC :
Khallushu captures Babylonia and the king.
693
- 692 BC :
Kutir-Nakhkhunte
/ Kudur-Nahunte : Seized the throne. Abdicated in favour
of his replacement.
692
- 689 BC :
Khumma-Menanu
/ Humban-nimena
692/691
BC :
The king leads a coalition of Elamite and Iranian states against
Assyrian king Sennacherib at the Battle of Halule on the Tigris.
With him is Babylon, the minor kingdom of Ellipi (roughly located
in Luristan, to the immediate west of Elam), and the kingdom of
Anshan which seems able to be able to call on the Parsua or Parsuash
(Persians). Anshan has often - but not always - been part of Elam
itself, but it may be ruled by a subsidiary line at this time. The
location of the battle suggests a march by the allies towards the
heart of Assyrian-dominated territory. The outcome is not decisive,
and does not prevent Sennacherib from devastating Babylon, although
it does protect Elam itself.
689
- 681 BC :
Khumma-Khaldash
I
681
- 676 BC :
Khumma-Khaldash
II
680
- 653 BC :
Shilhak-In-Shushinak
: Joint ruler (680-676 BC).
675
BC :
The
Persian tribes on Elam's eastern border begin to unite under the
(legendary) founder of their new dynasty. Many scholars of Persian
history now believe that Achaemenes is a fictional common ancestor
who is used to legitimise the rule of Darius I from 521 BC, but
the Persians do indeed unite and become increasingly dominant during
the course of the next century.
676
- 664 BC :
Urtaku
: Joint ruler.
664
- 653 BC :
Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak
: Joint ruler. Killed in battle.
653
BC :
Ashurbanipal of Assyria invades Elam and fights a battle at the
River Ulai, which runs near Susa. During the battle the king, Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak,
is killed and decapitated.
653
- 648 BC :
Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak
653
- 651 BC :
Khumbanigash
II : Joint ruler.
651
- 649 BC :
Tammaritu
: Joint ruler.
649
- 647 BC :
Indabigash
Joint
ruler (649-648 BC). :
647
- 644 BC :
Khumma-Khaldash
III
644
BC :
Neo-Elamite Period III begins as Elam is devastated by Assyria,
although not as badly as had previously been believed from inscriptions
left by the Assyrians themselves. The populace suffers greatly,
but they are not massacred. Instead, the fragmented and weakened
Elamites rule an increasingly shrinking domain which eventually
passes into the hands of the Persians. They gain Anshan (Anzan)
even while the last seventh century Elamite kings are still claiming
it within their title, possibly as a result of the Assyrian attack
on the Elamites in this year as it ties in with Achaemenes of the
Persians being acclaimed as the king of Anshan.
644
- ? BC :
Shuttir-Nakhkhunte
: Son. 'King of Anzan and of Susa'.
Khallutush-In-Shushinak
: 'King of Anzan and of Susa'.
c.580
BC :
Shuttir-Nakhkhunte
: Son of Indada. Petty king.
Khumma-Menanu
: 'King'.
559
BC
:
Before
this date, Cambyses of the Persians has married Mandane, (a) daughter
of Astyages of Media. Their son is Cyrus, later known as 'the Great',
while Mandane is also the niece of Amyhia, queen of Babylon. In
this year Cyrus moves his capital to Susa, clearly taking control
from the fading Elamite kings who now claim no title at all, and
are probably pleased simply to be able to claim a kingship. Cyrus
soon ends the vassalage of the Persians by defeating the Medes and
then he swiftly creates an empire.
Shilhak-In-Shushinak
II :
'King'. Lost Susa?
?
- 539 BC :
Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak
: Had no title at all.
539
BC :
The
Persians assume full control of Elam as part of their increasing
dominance of the region, leading to the Elamites disappearing from
history as a recognisable people and culture. The Persians preserve
Elamite culture for at least the period of their first dynasty,
although what seems to be a semi-independent fragment of Elamite
civilisation does seem to persist for several centuries in the form
of Elymais. On the Behistun inscription of Darius the Great in the
later years of the sixth century BC the land of Elam is known as
Uwja or Ūja. This is part of the satrapy of Persis, while Susa
forms the capital of its own eponymous satrapy.
Persian
Satraps of Susa (Susiana) :
Incorporating the Satraps of Elymais
(of the Uxians / Cissians)
It may have been as early as 644 BC when the Parsua gained dominance
in the eastern regions of Elam. The ancient kingdom was devastated
by Assyria, although not as badly as had previously been believed
from inscriptions left by the Assyrians themselves. The populace
suffered greatly, but they were not massacred. Instead, the fragmented
and weakened Elamites ruled an increasingly shrinking domain which
eventually passed into the hands of the Parsua. They gain Anshan
(Anzan) even while the last seventh century Elamite kings were still
claiming it within their title. The semi-mythical Achaemenes was
acclaimed as the king of Anshan (although perhaps retrospectively,
from a century later).
For
a while, the Parsua were dominated by their fellow Indo-Iranians,
the Medes. Then, in 559 BC, Cyrus I, king of Anshan, staged an uprising
which ended Median control and exchanged it for Persian control.
One of his very first acts after that was to move the Persian capital
to the former Elamite capital, Susa. In the later Behistun inscription
of Darius the Great this land is known as Uwja or Ūja, and
was part of the 'Great Satrapy Pārsa/Persis', or rather Persis
and Ūja were two 'main satrapies' which were governed together
and from the same place.
This
was the oldest and senior-most of the satrapies or provinces of
the empire, although its precise boundaries are somewhat anomalous.
Confusingly perhaps it didn't include the former Elamite capital
of Susa which had its own satrapy (shown here, while the satraps
of Pārsa/Persis are shown in the main Achaemenid page), even
though the same person may have commanded in all three to begin
with (see Bagapāna around 500 BC). Susa seems to have been
not only the imperial capital for a time, but also a provincial
one (see Arrian of Nicomedia). Little is known about the main satraps
for this region while the main satrapy Ūja was divided into
two regions: the plain around Susa and the Zagros Mountains. The
central minor satrapy of Susa seems to have coincided essentially
with the modern province of Khuzestan which sits at the top of the
Persian Gulf and borders Kuwait to the west.
By the middle of the fourth century BC there existed near Persis
a minor satrapy called Elymais (or Elamais). Containing the
territory of the 'Uxians of the Mountains', this region was autonomous,
or a 'free' territory, as the sources like to put it. Instead of
having a governing satrap it was subordinate to an indigenous 'prefect'.
Despite the acknowledgement of autonomy the inhabitants were still
obliged to perform military service for the satrap of the superior
main satrapy of Persis. It does seem to suggest, however, that the
Achaemenids were beginning to lose their grip on power if an autonomous
tribal area was able to exist in their own back yard. Elymais survived
right up to the third century AD as a semi-independent component
of the later Parthian empire, and was generally hostile to the Achaemenids.
Their worship suggests that they were not Indo-Iranian relatives
of the Persians, making it far more likely that they were a remnant
of the ancient Elamites, who themselves were rarely unified beyond
the need to deal with external states. The name is also highly redolent
of an Elamite continuation state.
The
Uxians (or Cissians) were first noted around the time
at which Assyrian power was declining (seventh century BC). They
were a Persian tribe (see index for more tribes) whose people are
referred to in later sources by these names (Diodorus, for instance),
noted as having migrated to the mountain region within the vicinity
of Susa. The Achaemenids considered this tribe to be representative
of the area in much the same way as their Persis was for the Parsua
people from whom the Achaemenids descended, so they named the province
after them.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Bibliotheca Historica, Diodorus Siculus, from Anabasis
Alexandri, Arrian of Nicomedia, from A Political History
of the Achaemenid Empire, M A Dandamaev, from The Persian
Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus
(Penguin, 1996), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World,
4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Haywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000),
from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC (Volumes I &
II), Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000), from A History of the Ancient
Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing,
2004, 2007), and from External Links: Epitome of the Philippic
History of Pompeius Trogus, Marcus Junianus Justinus (Translated,
with notes, by Rev John Selby Watson, London 1853), and The Achaemenid
Court, Bruno Jacobs & Robert Rollinger (PDF), and Encyclopaedia
Iranica, and Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Richard T Hallock
(Oriental Institute Publications at the University of Chicago, available
for download as a PDF).)
559
- ? BC :
Sybares
/ Soebaris? : First satrap? Also in Persis.
559 BC :
The Persian Sybares had been released from Median slavery by Cyrus
the Great and subsequently becomes the king's companion in his undertakings.
Now, at the beginning of the reign of Cyrus, he appoints Sybares
to the position of chancellor of Persis. Given that Bagapāna
around 500 BC seems to hold this same position while also governing
Susa, it seems likely that Sybares fulfils the same role.
![Cyrus the Great](Persia_CyrusGreat_01_full.jpg)
Cyrus
the Great freed the Indo-Iranian Parsua people from Median domination
to establish a nation that is recognisable to this day, and an empire
that provided the basis for the vast territories that were later
ruled by Alexander the Great
539 BC :
Nabonidus angers the Babylonians by trying to reintroduce Assyrian
culture, including placing the moon god Sin above Babylon's Marduk
in terms of importance. Perhaps because of that, resistance to Cyrus
the Great of Persia, when he enters Babylonia from the east, is
limited to just one major battle, near the confluence of the Diyala
and Tigris rivers. On 12/13 October (sources vary), Babylon is occupied
by Cyrus, which also gains him the remainder of Elam's territory
plus Athura (Ashur, heartland of the former Assyrian empire).
fl
c.500 BC :
Bagapāna
: Satrap? Also in Persis? Otherwise unknown.
c.500 BC :
A certain Bagapāna is mentioned is named in the Persepolis
Fortification Tablets (forming just about the largest coherent
body of material available today on Persian administration). This
individual has also been noted as a potential chancellor of Persis.
At the same time, Darius oversees the completion of a canal connecting
the Nile to the Red Sea.
521
BC :
Immediately after Darius secures the throne from the usurper 'Gaumata'
who uses the name Smerdis, he faces several rebellions. The first,
in Babirush, is defeated in battle. The Cyaxarid, Fravartiš, tries
to restore Media to independence and is defeated and executed. Extensions
of the insurrection in Armina, Parthawa, and Verkâna are also crushed.
Darius mentions that the revolt arises in Asagarta, which is the
land of the Sargatians within the satrapy of Zranka.
340s
BC :
By this time there exists near Persis a minor satrapy called Elymais.
Containing the territory of the 'Uxians of the Mountains',
it is autonomous, or a 'free' territory, as the sources like to
put it. Instead it is subordinate to an indigenous 'prefect'. Despite
the acknowledgement of autonomy the inhabitants are obliged to perform
military service for the satrap of the superior main satrapy of
Persis. It does seem to suggest, however, that the Achaemenids are
beginning to lose their grip on power if an autonomous tribal area
can exist in their own back yard.
![Coin of King Orodes I-III of Elymais](Elam_ElymaisOrodesCoin01_full.jpg)
Initially
appearing in history as a semi-independent state that was only under
nominal Persian control, even though it still provided troops to
the empire, Elymais by the end of the first century BC was producing
its own coins stamped with the name of its king (the example shown
here was issued by King Orodes I-III (the specific king is uncertain),
circa AD 50-200)
? - 331 BC :
Abulites : Satrap. Retained by Alexander the Great.
331 BC :
At the Battle of Gaugamela, Oxathres, son of Abulites, commands
the Uxians and Susians during the battle. His superior, 'Chancellor'
Ariobarzanes of Persis, leads some Persian units, perhaps two thousand
men in total, with the concentration of these being in the centre.
They take heavy casualties, but Ariobarzanes is able to leave the
battlefield with his king.
Darius flees eastwards and the defence of each province is left
to its satrap. Oxathres returns to Susa to stand alongside his father.
Alexander seizes Babirush and Susa (although Abulites actually welcomes
Alexander into Susa) and, having gathered intelligence on Persis,
he sets out with a picked force of 17,000 men for Persepolis.
Seeing that the Macedonian army is unbeatable on the plain, Ariobarzanes
blocks its path on the way to Persepolis in a gorge known as the
Persian Gate or Susian Gate in order to deprive it of battle formation,
diverse arms, and superior numbers. The first Greek attack is a
failure, so Alexander handsomely bribes some prisoners to lead him
around the defensive line and attack the Persian camp from behind.
The Persians are defeated in ferocious hand-to-hand fighting and
Ariobarzanes falls. The Uxians are similarly dispatched at the Battle
of the Uxian Defile. Persian Susa has fallen.
![The Persian Gates](Persia_PersianGates01_full.jpg)
The
Persian Gate presented a formidable obstacle for any large army
attempting to force its way through (as it would do even today)
so in 331 BC Alexander was forced to go around and attack the defenders
from behind
Argead
Dynasty in Susiana (Elam) :
Incorporating the Satraps of Paraetacene
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's
death in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in
310 BC. Alexander's successors held no real power, being mere figureheads
for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire.
Following that latter period and during the course of several wars,
the territory of the ancient kingdom of Elam was left in the hands
of the Seleucid empire from 301 BC.
As elsewhere in the captured empire, Alexander retained most of
the previous system of administration, and this included the use
of satraps to govern the regions. The Greek focus in Elam was on
their capital at Susa - its Persian name, better known as Shushan
or Susiana in Greek writings. This generally formed the capital
of the province of Susiana and had once formed one of the key regions
of Elam itself. During subsequent Macedonian rule its importance
lessened greatly, with the focus of power being in Babylon or the
new Seleucid capital of Seleucia-on-Tigris. Susa lies at the foot
of the southern end of the Zagros Mountains, close to the modern
town of Shush and also close to the border with south-eastern Iraq.
The minor satrapy of Paraetacene was situated, according
to Strabo, between Persia and the Median core region. The province
is also said by Strabo to adjoin Susiana in the (south-)west, with
the desert extending to Carmania in the south-east, and Parthia
lying to the north-east. Arrian's report that Alexander arrived
in the territory of the Paraetaceneans soon after his departure
from Persepolis for Ecbatana fixes the position of the province
approximately in the area of the modern province of Isfahan. Herodotus
counted the Paraetaceni as a tribe of the Medians.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Alexander the Great: A Reader, Ian Worthington (Routledge,
2012), from Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus,
Volume II, Marcus Junianus Justinus, from the Cyropaedia
& Anabasis, Xenophon of Athens, from Brill's Companion
to Alexander the Great, Joseph Roisman (BRILL, 2002), and from
External Links: Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology,
Jan Tavernier (PDF), and A Brief History of Ancient Greece (Oxford
University Press), and A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography
and Mythology, William Smith (Ed, 1867), and Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
331
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : King of Macedonia. Conquered
Persia.
323 - 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander
the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander the
Great and Roxana.
331
- 325 BC :
Abulites
: Satrap of Susiana. Former Achaemenid satrap. Executed.
330
- 325 BC :
Oxathres
/ Oxoathres / Oxyathres : Son. Satrap of Paraetacene. Executed.
331 BC :
Following the defeat of Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela, Abulites
opens the gates of Susa to Alexander the Great, sending his son,
Oxathres, ahead as the messenger of good news. Abulites is retained
in his post as satrap of Susiana (the Greek form of the name), and
Oxathres is attached to him as satrap of the junior post Paraetacene.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
325 BC :
When Alexander returns from his long expedition into India, towards
the latter end of 325 BC, eight satraps and generals are removed
from office and executed. Most are guilty of assuming that Alexander
would not survive and had begun to exploit his empire for their
own personal benefit. To prevent similar problems in the future,
all satraps are ordered to disband their mercenary forces. Abulites
and Oxathres are amongst the dead, apparently killed by Alexander
in person using a javelin.
Alexander
holds an event which has become known as the 'Susa Weddings'. His
intention is to unite Persians and Macedonians symbolically by carrying
out a mass joining of prospective couples in a single ceremony.
He takes a Persian wife himself and arranges many Persian wives
for his officers. Persian custom allows multiple wives, so the fact
that Alexander is already married to Roxana of Sogdiana is not a
hindrance. His second wife is Stateira II, eldest daughter of the
late Darius. Alexander may also have taken a third wife at the same
ceremony, Parysatis, youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III (the late
great-uncle of Darius and a former Persian king in his own right).
324
BC :
Following Alexander's premature death in 323 BC, Roxana murders
Stateira, and possibly her sister, primarily to remove competition
in the succession. All of the surviving Macedonian officers also
divorce their own Persian wives, ending any pretence at Macedonian-Persian
unity. At the same time, Susiana is presumably governed by Archon,
who holds Babylonia in the name of the titular successors to the
empire.
323
- 321 BC :
Archon
of Pella : Greek satrap of Babylonia & Susiana. Killed
in battle.
320 BC :
A new agreement with Antipater makes him regent of the Greek empire
and commander of the European section. Antigonus Monophthalmus remains
in charge of Lycia and Pamphylia, to which is added Lycaonia, Syria
and Canaan, making him commander of the Asian section. Ptolemy retains
Egypt, Lysimachus retains Phrygia and Thrace, while the three murderers
of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes - are given the
former Persian provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana respectively.
![Susa Weddings](Elam_SusaWeddings01_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
320
- 316 BC :
Antigenes
: Greek satrap. Gained Susiana after First War of the Diadochi.
316
BC :
Eumenes is defeated in Asia and is murdered by his own troops, and
Seleucus is forced to flee Babylon by Antigonus. The result is that
Cassander controls the European territories (including Macedonia),
while the Antigonids control those in Asia (Asia Minor, centred
on Lycia and extending as far as Susiana). Antigenes, satrap of
Susiana, is killed by Antigonus, burned alive. Susiana is subsequently
drawn into Antigonus' empire.
315
- 312? BC :
Antigonus
Monophthalmus (One Eye) : Greek satrap. Gained Susiana
after First War of the Diadochi.
314 - 311 BC :
The Third War of the Diadochi results because the Antigonids
have grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals, so Antigonus
is attacked by Ptolemy (of Egypt), Lysimachus (of Phrygia and Thrace),
Cassander (of Macedonia), and Seleucus (who is hoping to regain
Babylonia). The latter indeed does secure Babylon and the others
conclude peace terms with Antigonus in 311 BC. Antigonus' appointment
as satrap of Media, Nicanor, is removed from his post by Seleucus,
and it seems likely that the same happens in northern Mesopotamia.
312?
- 305 BC :
Seleucus
: Greek satrap of Babylonia again. Became king (305 BC).
308 - 301 BC :
The Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC
Antigonus proclaims himself king, so the following year the other
generals do the same in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet
in his stronghold in the Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander
claims his territory. The war ends in the death of Antigonus at
the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
Seleucus
is now king of all Hellenic territory from Syria eastwards, and
the Seleucid empire is created. The Parthians capture Susiana in
138 BC and the region's importance largely ends for several centuries.
In later years Elam is traditionally counted as being part of Persian
territory, and its modern successor, Iran.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/EasternElam.htm
#Persians