MAEONIA
AND LYDIA
c.13th
Century - 547 BC :
Situated
in western Anatolia, in the second millennium BC Maeonia had been
a Hittite territory within the subjected lands of Arzawa. The language
spoken by its inhabitants was closely related to the South Indo-European
Luwian which was spoken all around them, but perhaps with minor
differences. The Lydians are often recognised as being a separate
group of South Indo-European-speakers. Herodotus states that the
nearby Mysians were of the same stock as the Lydians. Potential
support for this comes from the fact that the two were always stationed
together in the later Persian armies (although that could also be
due to the fact that their home states were similarly close together).
As
Hittite power collapsed during the thirteenth century BC, Maeonia
became an independent neo-Hittite kingdom. Independence didn't last
for long, however, as it soon fell to the Heraclidae (the Mycenaean
Greeks under Heracles) some time after they defeated Troy. Although
Mycenaean civilisation disappeared from most of Greece following
the Dorian invasions, Lydia survived with its capital at Sardis.
Unfortunately, none of the kingdom's history is datable until the
accession of Gyges in 685 BC, while its traditions, mythology and
rituals have been lost, leaving us to rely on Greek mythology for
its earliest events.
Ephesus,
a few kilometres from Sardis, near the coast, was later a major
city in the Roman world, being an important centre for early Christianity,
as well as home to a gladiator school.
(Additional
information from External Link: the Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Geography, William Smith (Ed, 1854).)
1300s
BC :
The
first Mycenaean Greek settlements are founded along the coastline
of western Anatolia. Indo-European Hittite and Luwian peoples still
govern the territory however, probably from the state of Arzawa.
![Luwian bronze seal](Luwian_Seal01_full.jpg)
A
bronze seal written in the almost universal Anatolian language of
Luwian which was discovered at Troy in 1995
c.1200
BC :
The weakened Hittite empire is destroyed, and the former subjects
of western Anatolia form a neo-Hittite state called Maeonia.
Herodotus claims that colonists from this state land in Etruria
around this time and become the Etruscans.
Atyad
Kings of Maeonia / Maionia (Tantalids) :
The
information on Maeonia before the seventh century BC comes from
sources such as Herodotus. He gives the founder and namesake of
the kingdom, Manes, as the first king of Maeonia, with a son named
Atys (Atyllus). Other sources, such as Strabo, name Tmolus and his
son Tantalus as kings of the region at the same time, ruling from
Sipylus (Mount Sipylus, near Manisa and Izmir in western Anatolia).
As Omphale is shown as a member of both families, the probability
is that they are identical.
The region was on the edge of late Hittite territory, within former
Arzawa, and its Indo-European Maeonian kings were neo-Hittites who
ruled independently after the empire collapsed. The rulers are all
semi-legendary figures.
(Additional information from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin,
1996).)
c.1200?
BC :
Manes
/ Tmolus : Founder of Maeonia. Gored to death by a bull.
c.1195
- 1173? BC :
Omphale
: Wife. Reigned after Manes' death.
c.1190?
BC :
Atys
/ Tantalus : Son of Tmolus and Plouto. m Dione.
Herodotus states that in the time of Atys there is a 'great scarcity
[of food] throughout the whole land of Lydia', which appears to
be a remembrance of the widescale famine that affects the region
at the end of the thirteenth century BC. The famine lasts for at
least eighteen years, during which the population copes as best
it can on what is in effect half-rations. In the end, Atys divides
the populace in two, and instructs one of his sons, Tyrsenos, to
command half in a migration to new lands. Heading west they become
known after their new king - as Tyrsenians - finding refuge in the
'land of the Ombricans'. These would be Umbrians, an Italic tribe
which, during the Iron Age, occupies much of the mountainous spine
of central and northern Italy. The Tyrenians settle to the west
of them, becoming a people known as the Etruscans.
Tantalus
is a name from Greek legend, ruling in Sipylus (Mount Sipylus),
otherwise known as the kingdom of Tantalus. It seems likely that
he and Atys are one and the same. To test the gods, he kills his
son, Pelops, and they revive him.
Pelops
: Son. m Hippodamia, dau of Oenomaus. King of Pisa.
The
sons of Pelops, Atreus and Thyestes, fight between each other for
the kingdom of Mycenae. Atreus wins and becomes king. He founds
the dynasty at Mycenae which produces Agamemnon but which is cursed
to suffer misfortune.
?
- c.1183 BC :
Lydus
/ Broteas : Brother. Went mad and threw himself into a
fire.
Died
c.1200 BC :
Tantalus
(of Pisa) : Son. m Clytemnestra & killed by Agamemnon
of Mycenae.
c.1193
- 1183 BC :
Mesthles
and Antiphus, the sons of Telaemenes, lead the Maeonian contingent
to the Trojan War on the side of Troy.
c.1183
- 1100 BC :
Maeonia
becomes a Heraclid post-Mycenaean, Ionic colony after the defeat
of Troy. It is unclear whether the new masters are part of the Ionian
League, but it seems that Omphale still rules for a time (perhaps
as a vassal?).
Following the collapse of Mycenaean civilisation in Greece by around
1140 BC, it seems that the Mycenaean settlers in Maeonia either
take over the kingdom, or replace it with one of their own in the
same region.
Heraclid
Kings of Maeonia / Lydia (Tylonids) :
Following the Mycenaean conquest of Troy, the descendants of semi-legendary
Heracles eventually seem to have established the capital at Hyde
(perhaps the name of the region in which Sardis was located). They
were bordered by the Ionian League of city states to the west and
Phrygia to the north-east. At some point up to the reign of Gyges
in circa 685 BC Maeonia became Lydia after the last king
of the previous dynasty. The change in the kingdom's name supports
a level of social change in the region which could include the replacement
of a Maeonian royal house for a Mycenaean one, or perhaps the Heraclids
for the later Mermnads.
The Heraclids comprised twenty-two kings who reigned for a total
of 505 years, according to Herodotus. They were descended from a
liaison between Omphale and Heracles (known as Tylon to the Lydians),
although Herodotus suggests that the Lydian kings may not have descended
from Omphale at all. Perhaps this was a later Mycenaean attempt
at establishing the legitimacy of their rule.
Lydian warriors were famous archers by the sixth century BC who
were known by the Judeans (Jeremiah 46:9). In fact the early Israelites
even claimed to have an ancestor figure named Lud who was the founder
of the Lydians. The fact that the language of the Lydians can clearly
be traced renders this claim an empty one. Despite the Greek influences,
their language remained Lydian, an Indo-European language which
was related to Luwian and Hittite, which finally became extinct
during the first century BC.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Wayne
McCleese (the list of Abraham's ancestors).)
c.1183
BC :
Heracles
/ Herakles : Married Omphale, widow of Manes, but apparently
didn't rule.
c.1183
- 1173 BC :
In Greek mythology, Omphale is the ruler of Lydia, whom Heracles
is required to serve for a period of time (his various adventures
also include restoring his brother as ruler of Laconia). During
his time in Lydia Heracles enslaves the Itones, kills Syleus (who
had been forcing passers-by to hoe his vineyard), and captures the
Cercopes. One of his companions, Autolycus, is reputed to refound
the port settlement of Sinope on the Black Sea coast.
c.1160?
BC :
Alcaeus
/ Alkaios : Son. Later chroniclers named these three as
kings of Lydia.
c.1140?
BC :
Belus
/ Belos : Son.
c.1120?
BC :
Ninus
/ Ninos : Son.
c.1100?
BC :
Agron
: Son. First Heraclid king of Lydia.
c.1100
- 795 BC :
Seventeen unknown kings over 505 years, all succeeding each other
in an unbroken line of descent.
795
- 759 BC :
Ardys
I / Ardysus I : Son of his predecessor.
759
- 745 BC :
Alyattes
I : Son.
745
- 733 BC :
Meles
/ Myrsus : Son.
733
- 716 BC :
Candaules
/ Myrsilus : Son. Murdered by former friend Gyges.
731
(695) BC :
Phrygia loses the territory of Pergamum to Lydia about 695 BC, seemingly
upon the defeat and suicide of King Midas III. Five years later,
nomadic Cimmerian warriors overrun Phrygia and sack the capital,
Gordion. However, this Cimmerian sacking is also stated to be the
cause of Midas committing suicide, so the situation seems to be
mildly confused. Either way, Lydia becomes the dominant power in
western Anatolia whilst Phrygia is eclipsed.
716
(685) BC :
Gyges
murders Candaules and usurps the kingdom, marrying Candaules' widow
to cement his claim to the throne. From this point onwards, dates
are calculated against those of Assyrian history.
Mermnad
Kings of Lydia :
From the reign of Gyges onwards the kingdom is fully historical.
However, the dates for this dynasty have never been determined with
certainty. The traditional dates are derived from Herodotus, who
gives the lengths of each king's reign; but these have been questioned
by modern scholars on the basis of matching events with confirmed
dates in Assyrian history. The dates calculated against Assyrian
history are shown here, with the traditional dates in the notes.
After murdering his former friend, Candaules, and taking his Heraclid
throne, Gyges founded a new capital at Sardis, a few miles further
inland from Sipylus. During his reign and afterwards, Lydia became
the leading power in western Anatolia and held onto that position,
now that Phrygia had been severely reduced in strength following
the sacking of its capital city. The newly-expanded Lydia quickly
incorporated territory that saw its borders stretch from the Greek
fringe on the western coast as far as the River Halys in the east.
It was at this river that the Lydians came to blows with the Medians
in 590 BC. To the south of this, the rulers of Khilakku seem to
have absorbed the remaining principalities of eastern Anatolia.
Lydia is also noted as the birthplace of coinage circa 660
BC, and the kingdom had subjugated Caria by the sixth century.
(Additional information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook
(1983), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica,
and Thrasybulus of of Miletus (Hellenica World).)
c.685
- 644 BC :
Gyges
(Guggu) : (716-678 BC). Married Candaules' widow. Reigned
38 years.
652
BC :
One
serious invasion of Anatolia by Cimmerians has already been repulsed,
with the states or regions of Hilakku, Lydia, and Tabal requesting
help from Assyria. Now the Cimmerians return (leader unknown). King
Gyges of Lydia is killed during a second attack. His capital of
Sardis is captured, all except the citadel which manages to hold
out. The fact that it does suggests either that either the Cimmerians
do not hang around for long after their victory or that (as before)
they are moved along by an Assyrian force (with Ardys II of Lydia
helping them on their way at the point of a sword).
![Cimmerian warriors](Cimmerians_Warriors01_full.jpg)
This
image shows Cimmerians battling early Greeks - prior to the advent
of accepted 'Classical' Greece - with the mounted Cimmerians warriors
apparently being accompanied by their dogs
Excavations
at the site of Sardis later discover a destruction layer that appears
to be associated with this event. The dating is clearly off when
matched against the dates given here for Gyges, or even the alternative
dates shown in parentheses in his notes, but that is not unusual
when many events are being pieced together from various ancient
inscriptions, tablets, and 'annals'.
c.644
- 615 BC :
Ardys
II / Ardysus II : (678-c.625 BC). Son. Reigned 49 years.
c.626
- 590 BC :
Lydia
seizes control of the kingdom of Phrygia.
c.615
- 610 BC :
Sadyattes
: (629-617 BC). Son. Reigned 12 years.
c.609/5
- 598/4 BC :
An eleven year-long war is triggered against the city of Miletus
in Caria around 623 BC. According to Herodotus, Thrasybulus of Miletus
wards off Sadyattes and then tricks his successor, Alyattes, into
agreeing peace following stalemate on the battlefield.
c.610
- 560 BC :
Alyattes
II : (617-560 BC). Son. Reigned 57 years.
c.600
BC :
The
Lydians conquer the southern Anatolian region of Pamphylia and expand
the kingdom in all directions. This brings them into direct contact
with Greek settlers in western Anatolia. During this period the
kingdom is bordered in the north-east by Scythians and Cimmerians,
tribes which are aggressive and unruly, although most of their antagonism
is directed towards Assyria.
585
BC :
Alyattes
loses the Battle of the Eclipse to Media in a fifteen year war which
is otherwise relatively evenly matched. Lydia expands in his reign
to form an empire that covers all of western Anatolia and includes
Paphlagonia. The end of the war signals the start of closer ties
between the two kingdoms. Alyattes II of Lydia gives his daughter
in marriage to Astyages, son of Cyaxares.
560
- 547 BC :
Croesus
/ Kroisos : (560-546 BC). Son. Reigned 14 years.
547
BC :
Croesus
is the source of the term 'rich as Croesus'. His powerful kingdom
now finds itself neighboured across the River Halys by the recently-established
Persian empire which has overthrown his own brother-in-law, Astyages,
as ruler of the Medes. The Persian ruler, Cyrus, may also be making
overtures to the Ionian Greeks behind his back, attempting to destabilise
the Lydian domains. Croesus crosses the Halys with his formidable
cavalry and captures Pteria but is forced back by Cyrus after an
indecisive battle.
Thinking
the campaigning season over, he dismisses his mercenaries and is
surprised when Cyrus follows him. The Battle of the Lydian Plain
sees a hurriedly-assembled Lydian force scattered. The capital at
Sardis falls in fourteen days and Croesus is taken as a prisoner.
Lydia is absorbed into the empire and becomes the centre of a satrapy
named Sparda. The empire of Croesus had included various neighbouring
territories, including Pamphylia and Paphlagonia, and Persia takes
these too.
![Coins of Croesus of Lydia](Lydia_CroesusCoin01_full.jpg)
Croesus
was reputed to have minted the first gold and silver coins - two
sides of such a silver coin are shown here - and was famous for
his wealth until he became too ambitious and was conquered by the
growing Persian empire
Persian
Satraps of Sparda (Lydia & Sardis) :
Incorporating the Province of Yauna
The attempt in 547 BC by the kingdom of Lydia to invade Anatolian
lands which now belonged to the Persian empire saw an appropriate
Persian response. Cyrus the Great invaded Lydia and crushed it,
and then proceeded to capture the rest of Anatolia too. The kingdom
of Phrygia and the minor city states of Caria also fell between
549-546 BC. Following that, a Persian layer of administration was
introduced to replace the lost kingships. Fortunately this is the
best-documented of all the great satrapies, providing a good deal
of information and extrapolation to help detail other satrapies.
Its capital was the old Lydian metropolis of Sardis (Sparda to the
Persians).
The new great satrapy of Sparda initially controlled not only the
territory of the former kingdom of Lydia, but also that of Katpatuka
which had been the initial target of Lydia's aggression, and the
reason that Lydia had been conquered in the first place. Perhaps
Cyrus enjoyed the irony of the situation. More specifically, the
great satrapy of Sparda consisted of the central minor satrapy of
Lydia around its capital of Sardis, and the more peripheral minor
satrapies of Hellespontine Phrygia (with its capital at Daskyleion),
Greater Phrygia, Karkâ, and Skudra (between 512-479 BC, at which
time Persian control was shrugged off there).
The former kingdom and now-region of Mysia was rarely important
enough to warrant many further mentions in history, but subsequent
references to it are handled under the Lydian satraps. As a minor
satrapy, Karkâ also oversaw the administration of neighbouring Lykia
as an even more minor satrapy. The Ionian and Aeolian regions did
not strike the Persians as being clearly defined geopolitical entities,
with the result that various descriptions are used for them from
the very beginning of Achaemenid occupation. There was no Ionian
satrapy, though, even if Darius I did organise them into a nebulous
province called Yauna. The islands were administered directly
from Sparda.
Demaratus was a king of Sparta who had been exiled for being obstructive
and churlish (but perhaps a greater motive was his questionable
parentage). He fled to Persia where he advised Darius I and then
Xerxes on Greek affairs, and accompanied the Persian army in its
invasion of Greece in 480 BC. When that failed, Xerxes made him
governor of the cities of Pergamum, Teuthrania, and Halisarna within
the province of Mysia, in the Lydian satrapy. His descendants inherited
the office over the subsequent eighty years or so.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian
of Nicomedia, from Panyassis of Halikarnassos: Text and Commentary,
Paníasis, from The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Simon Hornblower,
Antony Spawforth, & Esther Eidinow (Oxford University Press,
2012), from A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology,
William Smith (Ed), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia
Iranica, and Lives of Eminent Commanders, Cornelius Nepos (1886
Edition), and The Wonder Of Mausoleum At Halicarnassus Planned To
Be 'Restituted' (Greece High Definition).)
549
- 546 BC :
The defeat of the Medes opens the floodgates for Cyrus the Great
with a wave of conquests, beginning with Cilicia in 549 BC. Harpagus,
a Median of the royal house and the main cause of the Median defeat,
commands Cyrus' army in Anatolia, conquering it between 547-546
BC.
![Cyrus the Great](Persia_CyrusGreat_01_full.jpg)
Cyrus
the Great freed the Indo-Iranian Parsua people from Median domination
to establish a nation that is recognisable to this day, and an empire
that provided the basis for the vast territories that were later
ruled by Alexander the Great
Taken
during this campaign are Armenia, Caria, Lycia, Lydia, Paphlagonia,
Phrygia, and Tabal (Cappadocia), and Harpagus and his descendants
reign thereafter in the satrapy of Karkâ (Caria) and Lykia (Lycia)
(and apparently Cilicia too) as satraps. Harpagus also takes on
the satrapy of Sparda following the death of its satrap around 544
BC.
546 - 545 BC :
Tabalus
: Persian satrap.
545 - c.544 BC :
Mazares : A Mede. Satrap. Died in office.
c.544 - ? BC :
Harpagus / Hypargus : A Mede. Satrap of Karkâ, Lykia, &
Sparda.
bef 530 - c.520 BC :
Oroetus / Oroites : Persian satrap of Sparda & Phrygia
(Daskyleion). Assassinated.
c.520 BC :
Oroetus has remained entirely unmoved during the many revolts against
the new Persian king, Darius, providing neither help nor hindrance.
However, he has already lured Polycrates, tyrant of the island of
Samos, to his death and now takes the opportunity to avenge an insult
by removing Mitrobates, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, and seizing
the province for himself. When Darius sends him orders Oroetus kills
the messenger, so Darius dispatches a 'volunteer', Bagaeus, who
assassinates the rogue satrap.
The brother of Polycrates, Syloson, is restored to Samos by Darius
as a Persian subject (in or after 517 BC). Two other Greek islands,
Chios and Lesbos, also submit to the Persians, probably giving Darius
his rather nebulous province of Yauna (Ionia, the islands
of the Ionian or East Greeks). Bagaeus, his mission successfully
concluded, becomes satrap of Sparda.
![Darius the Great of Persia](Persia_DariusI_01_full.jpg)
The
central relief of the North Stairs of the Apadana in Persepolis,
now in the Archaeological Museum in Tehran, shows Darius I (the
Great) on his royal throne (External Link: Creative Commons Licence
4.0 International)
c.520 - ? BC :
Bagaeus / Bagaios : Persian satrap of Sparda. Assassin
of Oroetus.
fl
517 BC :
Otanes
: Persian satrap of Sparda. Died?
Otanes
had been one of the seven who had removed the false Smerdis from
the Persian throne in 522 BC. In fact he had been the instigator
of a meeting which had led to the murder and the establishment of
a firmly centralised monarchy to replace the looser federal structure
that Cyrus had initiated. In response for not opposing Darius I
in his claim for the throne (Otanes has an equal, if not superior,
claim as the brother-in-law of Cyrus the Great), Otanes is granted
the satrapy of Sparda with orders to conquer the Greek island of
Samos. This is when Syloson is appointed as the ruler of the island.
fl
515? BC :
Gadates
: Persian satrap of Sparda. Recipient of the 'Gadates Letter'.
Gadates
is the recipient of the 'Gadates Letter' from Darius. It reprimands
him for curtailing the privileges of the priests of Apollo at Magnesia
on the Maeander, but commends him for introducing fruit trees from
Abarnahara (Syria). Although Gadates' position is not mentioned,
the location of his areas of influence suggest him as a satrap of
Sparda at a point between the assassination of Oroetus and Darius'
Scythian campaign of 513 BC.
513
- 492 BC :
Artaphernes
I : Brother of Darius I. Persian satrap of Sparda.
513 - 512 BC :
The Persians enter northern Greece, with Darius conquering Thrace
south of the Danube. They hold onto it for about fifty years, possibly
until they are forced out of Macedonia by Alexander I. This territory
is subjoined to the great satrapy of Sparda, most likely as the
minor satrapy of Skudra, with King Amyntas of Macedon as its local
governor. Colchis on the eastern shore of the Black Sea is taken
during the same campaign and is created a minor satrapy under the
oversight of Armina.
![Odrysian treasures](Thrace_Odrysian01_full.jpg)
The
Odrissae of Thrace were a union of tribes which formed towards the
end of Persian domination of the region, quite possibly being responsible
for weakening the empire's hold on the rural districts
507 BC :
The Athenians are threatened with attack on three fronts by hostile
Greek neighbours. They send to Sardis, asking for a Persian alliance.
This involves the Greek envoys recognising Persian suzerainty, something
which the Athenians promptly disavow after the emergency is over.
The Persians probably see it differently, viewing the Athenians
as rebellious subjects when they renounce the alliance, what Darius
the Great calls 'the Lie'.
c.500
BC :
Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, sees the opportunity for self-aggrandisement
in the restoration of some exiled oligarchs to the large, rich island
of Naxos. He approaches Satrap Artaphernes for support and, with
agreement from Darius, a fleet of two hundred triremes is sent to
Naxos. The expedition fails in its goal when Naxos is warned by
Greek members of the fleet, but Aristagoras has seen an opportunity
to rid himself (and his detained uncle, Histiaios) of Persian control.
499
- 493 BC :
The Ionian Greeks of western Anatolia and the islands of the eastern
Aegean which are under Persian hegemony now rise in the Ionian
Revolt. The Carians join in and, with the Ionians being led
by Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, they inflict heavy losses on
the Persians. Similar revolts arise in Aeolis, Salamis, and Doris
as the Greeks see a chance for freedom. Athens sends troops to aid
the Ionian islands but the Persians gradually gain the upper hand
and the revolt crumbles.
The end of the revolt probably sees the Persians breath a sigh of
relief that these troublesome Greeks are back under proper control.
Aristagoras, the main leader of the revolt, flees to Thrace in the
hopes of setting up a colony outside Persia's control, but he is
killed in a battle against a nearby town. His chosen successor in
Miletus is Pythagoras, but Darius the Great kills the men of the
city and enslaves its women and children, ensuring that the city
is deserted. For its part in the revolt, Athens will soon face the
first of two Persian invasions of Greece itself.
![Themistocles](Athens_Themistocles01_full.jpg)
The
Athenian politician and general Themistocles (archon in 493-492
BC) helped build up the city's navy so that it was a force to be
reckoned with when the Persians invaded Greece - thanks to this
the Athenian Admiral Cimon was able to defeat the Persians on the
banks of the River Eurymedon in Pamphylia in 465 BC
492
- ? BC :
Mardonius : Persian satrap of Sparda.
482 - aft 480 BC :
Artaphernes II : Satrap. Son of Artaphernes I.
480 - 479 BC :
Invading
Greece in 480 BC, during the Greco-Persian War the Persians
subdue the Thracian tribes (except for the Satrai, precursors to
the Bessoi) and the Macedonians. Then the vast army of Xerxes makes
its way southwards and is swiftly engaged by Athens and Sparta in
the Vale of Tempe. The Persians are subsequently stymied by King
Leonidas at Thermopylae and then defeated by the Delian League.
The naval Battle of Salamis is a resounding Greek victory. It leaves
much of the Persian navy destroyed and Xerxes is forced to retreat
to Asia.
Many of the Persian governors of the north-western imperial provinces
are defeated by Greeks and expelled, and this soon includes those
of Skudra. Colchis has probably also been lost to the Persians by
now, and Sardis may be too close to the new reach of the Greek navy
to be safe for a satrap. The satrapal seat may be moved further
inland, perhaps to Kelainai, although the satrapy generally becomes
obscure during this period. It is not until the Peace of Kallias
in 449 BC that Sardis again becomes safe for the Persians.
469 BC :
Athenian statesman and general, Kimon (or Cimon) leads an allied
Greek fleet to Karkâ. The attack focuses on destroying Persian strongholds
as far as Phaselis on the border with Pamphylia. The response from
Xerxes is to send an army under Pherendates to Pamphylia and a joint
fleet from Khilakku and Phoenicia (rebuilt after the loss of the
Persian fleet in 479 BC) under the command of Tithraustes, a bastard
son of Xerxes. The new fleet is destroyed and captured, and the
Persian army is utterly defeated.
![Stone carving of Phoenician ship](Tyre_Ship01_full.jpg)
This
first century AD stone carving reflects Phoenician ship design from
an earlier age, with them providing the majority of the naval forces
for the Persian empire
bef 440 - 415 BC :
Pissouthnes
: Persian satrap of Sparda.
c.415 BC :
Pissouthnes has been bolstering his position by hiring Greek mercenaries,
perhaps as a response to the uncertainty in the empire following
the death of Artaxerxes I. Pissouthnes himself is a legitimate heir
to the throne and knows that he may be placed in a position in which
he either has to launch a claim of his own or be destroyed by an
opponent. He appears to launch his bid during the rather more stable
reign of Darius II. Tissaphernes, son of Hydarnes, is sent to deal
with the 'revolt' and take over as satrap. Pissouthnes' son, Amorges,
continues the revolt on the coast with Athenian support between
about 414-412 BC.
c.415
- 408 BC :
Tissaphernes : Descendant of Hydarnes, satrap of Media
c.499 BC.
408 BC :
During such periods, the satrap of Sparda becomes directly responsible
for the entire region, including Katpatuka. He also vies for full
control of Lykia, often against his own peers. Tissaphernes certainly
attempts this during his period of office.
408
- 401 BC :
Cyrus the Younger : Brother of Artaxerxes II of Persia.
In Pergamum & Sparda.
400 - 395 BC :
Tissaphernes : Restored to office. Also governed Karkâ.
Executed.
395 BC :
Karkâ becomes a satrapy in its own right, upon the execution of
Tissaphernes by his replacement, Tithraustes. Its first satrap is
a Carian of a leading family, possibly Hyssaldomos, previously a
dynastic ruler of Mylasa. If so then he is almost immediately succeeded
by his son, Hekatomnos. The latter spawns a dynasty which governs
for almost half a century.
c.395
- 393? BC :
Tithraustes
: Persian satrap. Transferred to Egypt campaign (389 BC).
c.393 - 392 BC :
Tiribazos / Tiribazus : Persian satrap of Sparda. Formerly
of W Armina. Replaced.
389 - 387 BC :
Abrocomas (satrap of Ebir-nāri & Phoenicia) joins two other
Persian army commanders - Pharnabazus (not to be confused with Pharnabazus
II of Phrygia) and Tithraustes (former satrap of Sparda) - in the
attempted reconquest of Egypt. Their efforts meet with little success
as the Egyptians have relearned how to defend their country.
![Ruins of the eastern gate of Psamtik's fortress](DynastyXXVI_Fort01_full.jpg)
The
remains of a fortress which was probably built by Pharaoh Psamtik
in the late seventh century BC to secure Egypt's north-eastern border
show that, although Egypt's ability to defend its borders were much
diminished, it could still deliver invaders a painful sting
c.392 - ? BC :
Struthas
: Persian satrap of Sparda.
c.388 - 380 BC :
Tiribazos / Tiribazus : Restored to Sparda. Rebelled in
365 BC. Killed.
381 BC :
Persia regains control of Salamis in 381 BC after ten years of effort,
with Tiribazos leading the naval side of operations. Salamis continues
to be governed by its would-be independent king, Evagoras, now as
client king, while Tiribazos is impeached by Orontes, commander
of the land forces. He is temporarily jailed until his name has
been cleared. By then he has lost his satrapal seat for the second
time.
fl
367 BC :
Autophradates : Persian satrap of Sparda (with Karkâ).
Rebelled c.362 BC.
367 - 358 BC :
Ariobarzanus, satrap of Phrygia, joins Datames, satrap of Khilakku
and Katpatuka and independent ruler of Paphlagonia, in revolt against
Artaxerxes II. Autophradates, satrap of Sparda, is ordered to suppress
the rebellion and he manages to expel Ariobarzanes from the greater
part of his satrapy. In 365 BC, Athens sends thirty ships and 8,000
mercenaries to aid Ariobarzanus. He rewards Athens with the gift
of Sestos and Crithote, cities on the Thracian Chersonesus.
Soon
all of Asia Minor (Anatolia) revolts against Artaxerxes II, with
Datames also having seized Paphlagonia. In 362 BC, even Autophradates
is driven to join the rebels. At the same time, the patience of
the redoubtable Tiribazos with the king has run out. He conspires
with Darius, the crown prince, to remove Artaxerxes II but the plot
is discovered. Darius is executed and Tiribazos goes down fighting.
Sparta, and also Takhôs, pharaoh of Egypt, send substantial help
to the rebels. Two years later, in 360 BC, Ariobarzanes is betrayed
by his son, Mithridates, and is executed. The satrapal revolt is
finally suppressed in 359-358 BC.
?
- 334 BC :
Spithridates
: Persian satrap of Sparda. Mortally wounded in battle.
334 - 323 BC :
In 334 BC Alexander of Macedon launches his campaign into the Persian
empire by crossing the Dardanelles. The first battle is fought on
the River Graneikos (Granicus), eighty kilometres (fifty miles)
to the east. Spithridates joins his king at the battle and is involved
in the fighting to prevent Alexander from reaching Darius. Spithridates
aims a blow at Alexander's back, but his hand is cut off by Clitus
the Black (later Greek satrap of Bactria).
![Alexander the Great crosses the River Graneikos](Macedonia_Alexander03_full.jpg)
Alexander
the Great crossed the River Graneikos (or Granicus) in 334 BC to
spark a direct face-off with the Persians that had been brewing
for generations, and his victory in battle near the river sent shockwaves
through the Persian empire
The
Persian defeat forces Satrap Arsites of Daskyleion to commit suicide.
Sparda surrenders but Karkâ's satrap holds out in the fortress of
Halicarnassus with the Persian General Memnon. The fortress is blockaded
and Alexander moves on to fight the Lykian mountain folk during
the winter when they cannot take refuge in those mountains.
Argead
Dynasty in Lydia & Sardis :
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of the Persian holdings
in Anatolia and Syria between 334-331 BC, the Greek empire ruled
the region until Alexander's death in 323 BC and the subsequent
regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's successors held
no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals who really
held control of Alexander's empire. Following that latter period
and during the course of several wars, Anatolia was divided between
Cassander of Macedonia, the Lysimachian empire, and the Antigonid
empire.
Under Persian control, Lydia and the city of Sardis had formed the
centre of the highest level of satrapal governance of Anatolia under
the name Sparda. This initially controlled not only the territory
of the former kingdom of Lydia, but also that of Cappadocia and
the more peripheral minor satrapies of the two Phrygian regions
(one of which had a capital at Daskyleion), plus those of Caria,
and a region of Thrace which was labelled Skudra (but only between
512-479 BC).
Anatolia under the Persians was a troublesome command. The location
of frequent uprisings and rebellions, some of these were extremely
serious for the Persian king of the time, often threatening his
position on the throne. Quite often it seems to have been the region's
Greek populace that was behind the trouble, the Ionians of the islands,
just as often aided and abetted by those on the Greek mainland.
When Alexander the Great arrived in 334 BC, one serious battle at
River Graneikos (Granicus) served to unsettle the already-fragile
state of Persian command. The Persian defeat forced Arsites of Daskyleion
to commit suicide, Sparda surrendered, and Caria's satrap held out
in the fortress of Halicarnassus with the Persian General Memnon.
Alexander moved on to fight the Lycian mountain folk while leaving
units behind to deal with the pockets of resistance.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian
of Nicomedia, from Panyassis of Halikarnassos: Text and Commentary,
Paníasis, from The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Simon Hornblower,
Antony Spawforth, & Esther Eidinow (Oxford University Press,
2012), from A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology,
William Smith (Ed), from The Generalship of Alexander the Great,
J F C Fuller, from the Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek
Warfare, J Woronoff & I Spence, and from External Links:
Encyclopaedia Iranica, and The Geography of Strabo (Loeb Classical
Library Edition, 1932).)
334
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : King of Macedonia. Conquered
Persia.
323 - 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander
the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander
IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander the Great and
Roxana.
334
- 323 BC :
Assander
: Greek satrap. Later in Caria (323 BC).
334 BC :
With Persian Karkâ's new satrap holding out in the fortress of Halicarnassus
alongside the Persian General Memnon, Alexander sets up a blockade
and moves on to fight the Lycian mountain folk during the winter
when they cannot take refuge in those mountains. Ada, dispossessed
satrap of Karkâ, welcomes Alexander, besieges Halicarnassus for
him, and is raised to the status of queen of Caria following her
success in taking the city. Assander, now satrap of Lydia, is assigned
as her protector, should she require one. He also succeeds her in
Caria following what is presumably her death.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
323 BC :
Following the death of Alexander the Great, Menander is appointed
satrap of Lydia, having only just arrived in Babylon with a draft
of recruits for the army. Then the First War of the Diadochi
(the successors - the generals of Alexander's army) sees civil war
break out between the generals.
323
- 321 BC :
Menander
: Greek satrap in support of Antigonids.
321 BC :
A fresh settlement of territories sees Menander being replaced by
Cleitus, nicknamed 'the White' to distinguish him from the late
Cleitus 'the Black' of Bactria. Presumably this is so that Menander
can provide leadership during an Antigonid campaign against Eumenes
in Cappadocia. Cleitus too provides service to the Antigonids.
321
- 317 BC :
Cleitus
/ Clitus 'The White' : Greek satrap in support of Antigonids.
Killed in battle.
320 - c.180 BC :
Lydia becomes a battleground during the subsequent Wars of the
Diadochi which end in 301 BC. A new agreement in 320 BC with
Antipater makes him regent of the Macedonian empire and commander
of the European section. The Antigonids see their eponymous ruler
remain in charge of Lycia and Pamphylia, to which is added Lycaonia,
Syria and Phoenicia, making Antigonus commander of the Asian section.
Ptolemy retains Egypt, Lysimachus retains (Greater) Phrygia and
Thrace, while the three murderers of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon,
and Antigenes - are given the former Persian provinces of Babylonia,
Media, and Susiana respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former regent,
receives Hellespontine Phrygia.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
Lydia's
own status is less clear, but would seem to be part of the territories
that are controlled by Antigonus until 301 BC. Then, as part of
his Lysimachian empire, Lysimachus gains Ionia, Lydia, Phrygia,
and the southern Black Sea coast of Asia Minor. Cilicia and Lycia
are initially given to the brother of Cassander of Macedonia, Pleistarchus,
but he is forced out in the following year by the new Antigonid
ruler, Demetrius I Poliorcetes. The region soon also falls under
the rule of the Lysimachian empire.
By the time of the death in battle of Lysimachus in 281 BC, Lydia
has ceased to become important as an administrative centre, with
its cities now generally part of larger empires that have different
(and largely unknown) governmental arrangements.
c.180 - 133 BC :
Rome defeats the Seleucids in the Seleucid War, taking Asia
Minor as a province in 188 BC. The Seleucid ally, Cappadocia, negotiates
friendly terms with Rome, notably because Stratonice, the king's
daughter, is about to marry the king of Pergamon, a Roman ally.
Pergamon annexes the territory of Lydia and Pamphylia around this
point in time, but both become Roman provinces in 133 BC.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/AnatoliaLydia.htm
#Atyad%20Maeonia