NORTHERN
INDUS / NORTHERN PUNJAB
Incorporating
the Sattagydai :
The
ancient regions of the Indus lay on the eastern side of the Hindu
Kush mountains. Although rarely defined with any specific borders,
they generally followed the River Indus and its tributaries from
their headwaters the north, incorporating the foothills of the Himalayas,
to the Indus delta in the south. This area had witnessed the rise
and fall of one of the earliest civilisations, the Indus Valley
culture, between the late fourth millennium and around 1700 BC.
Then it had seen the widespread Indo-Aryan migrations from west
to east, and had settled into a patchwork of Indo-Aryan states or
tribal regions before the arrival of the Persians. Today this
region falls largely within Pakistan's borders, although throughout
history it has generally been seen as part of a greater India.
The northern part of the Indus river valley was known during the
early days of the Persian empire as Thatagush, a Persian corruption
of an unknown tribal name which the Greek writer Herodotus rendered
as Sattagydai and which later Latin writers amended to Satagydae.
The Persian form of the tribal name itself was Thatagu. 'Sattagydai'
would be the physical area occupied by the tribe. The tribe would
be the Satagydoi, using the Greek plural '-oi'. Removing this plural
suffix leaves a core name of Satagyd. As for meaning, the first
part of the name, 'sata-', is probably a form of satem, possibly
meaning 'hundred' (see note, below). The 'gu-' in the Persian
form of the name is possibly 'cow', and could be amended to the
Greek 'gy-' by shortening the 'u'. The 'd' must remain unknown for
the moment - perhaps it is a suffix added to the 'gu-'. The Persians
may have dropped the 'd' because it was actually a 'th'. If the
translation of 'hundred' is correct then the overall meaning could
be 'hundred herds' or 'hundred herders'. Think of it in terms of
Texan herders - 'hundred cowboys'! Indo-European groups were notable
for their cow herds, and also for cattle stealing exploits, so it
would be a fitting name for their Indo-Aryan descendants in the
Indus Valley.
They have been presumed to be 'of Indian stock', seemingly only
by modern writers. In reality, this would mean that they were an
Indo-Aryan folk (or at least an Indo-Aryan warrior elite ruling
an earlier population) who were closely related to all of their
regional neighbours both in the Indus valley and to the west of
the Hindu Kush mountains.
Note:
Indo-European (IE) language can be divided into centum (the
westernmost West IEs and Tocharians) and satem languages
(the rest, including Indo-Iranians). The former pronounced 'hundred'
with a 'k' as 'kentum' (plus variants and evolutions, notably Latin
softening the 'k' to a 'c' as centum), and the latter using
an 's' as satem (in Avestan - the Persian form was sad).
(Additional information by Edward Dawson, from The Persian Empire,
J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin,
1996), and from External Links: Old Iranian - Online Avestan
Master Glossary (University of Texas at Austin), and Dictionary
of most common Avesta words.)
c.546
- 540 BC
:
The
defeat of the Medes opens the floodgates for Cyrus the Great with
a wave of conquests, beginning in the west from 549 BC but focussing
towards the east of the Persians from about 546 BC. Eastern Iran
falls during a more drawn-out campaign between about 546-540 BC,
which may be when Maka is taken (presumed to be the southern coastal
strip of the Arabian Sea). Further eastern regions now fall, namely
Arachosia, Aria, Bactria, Carmania, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Gandhar,
Gedrosia, Hyrcania, Margiana, Parthia, Saka (at least part of the
broad tribal lands of the Sakas), Sogdiana (with Ferghana), and
Thatagush - all added to the empire, although records for these
campaigns are characteristically sparse.
Persian
Satraps of Thatagush (Θatagu / Sattagydia) :
Incorporating Ambisares, Paurava, & Taxila
Conquered in the mid-sixth century BC by Cyrus the Great, the northern
Indus region was added to the Persian empire. Before that it was
populated by tribal groups or small kingdoms, all of whom - by the
first millennium BC - would have been dominated by Indo-Aryan people,
or at least an Indo-Aryan warrior elite which governed an indigenous
group. Unlike the other eastern regions of the empire, which were
ancestral homelands for the Persians, the territories of the Indus
were less familiar. Even so, given the Indo-Aryan migrations through
this region over the preceding millennium, there were probably no
language barriers for the forces of Cyrus and few cultural differences.
Although details of his conquests in the Indus are poor, he seemingly
experienced few problems in uniting the various groups here under
his governance.
Prior to the reorganisations under Darius the Great, the northern
Indus was organised into a province called Thatagush (this
can also be referred to as 'Northern Punjab' in some sources and
Θatagu in Persian sources). The name Thatagush is a
Persian corruption of the name of the tribe which occupied the valley,
which the Greek writer Herodotus rendered as Sattagydai. To add
to the confusion, this name can also be used in some sources to
denote the province in the form of Sattagydia. Sattagydia
could also be used to determine not one but three minor satrapies
within Thatagush. One of these was along the Indus, one was to the
north of Taxila (with Taxila - now known as Sirkap - probably
providing the province with its capital), and one was to the east
of the Hydaspes - the eastern frontier of the Achaemenid empire.
Although not too much is known about Thatagush, it is clear that
the River Indus formed its border with Harahuwatish (Arachosia).
One of the most informative sources when attempting to reconstruct
the satrapal administration of Harahuwatish and Gedrosia is that
of Alexander's appointments. In northern Harahuwatish, when he first
encountered its large administrative complex, Alexander made important
decisions about Zranka, Gedrosia, and Hindush. These regions were
therefore subsumed in the Arachosian administrative complex, and
this may have been the case in Persian times too. In the form of
Sattagydia, Thatagush certainly also seems to be part of the territories
of the satrap of Harahuwatish during the rebellions which followed
the accession of Darius the Great in 522-521 BC. The Babylonian
version of the Behistun inscription clearly links the two provinces
together at this time, while the inscription also shows that Thatagush
was already part of the empire when Darius acceded the throne.
(Additional information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook
(1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from
Persica, Ctesias of Cnidus (original work lost but a section
is repeated by Photius in ninth century AD Constantinople), and
from External Links: Encyclopaedia Iranica, and Livius.org.)
fl
522/521 BC :
Vivāna
: Satrap, with Harahuwatish. Appointed by Cambyses.
522
- 521 BC :
Immediately after Darius I secures the throne he faces several rebellions,
stretching from Babirush to Media and Armina to Parthawa, and Verkāna.
The responses to all of these are handled well by Darius and all
are crushed in turn. Another major rebellion in Mergu happens towards
the end of 522 or 521 BC and that too is put down.
Darius mentions that the the 'false' king he had replaced on the
Achaemenid throne, Smerdis (otherwise known as Vahyazdāta), had
sent his own satrap to govern Harahuwatish with orders to put down
the present incumbent. The two sides meet (or have met) in battle
at a fortress called Kapia-kani (probably Kapisa). Quite possibly
Vivāna is besieged for several weeks before assembling for battle
in December 522 BC. Vivāna's forces are victorious, but the rebels
are able to regroup and offer battle again at Gandutava. This time
they are crushed, although the 'false' satrap is able to flee to
a fortress called Arādā, still within Harahuwatish and possibly
Vivāna's personal headquarters in the province. Vivāna and his army
march after them on foot and at the fortress they are seized and
killed (in February 521 BC).
The emergency in Harahuwatish is over. The 'false' satrap seems
not to be mentioned by name, a good way of ensuring that history
forgets him. However, there may still be rebel elements in Thatagush,
as Darius conducts a campaign there, during which he also seems
to secure a new satrapy by the name of Hindush. Some of this territory
is already likely to have been part of the conquests of Cyrus the
Great, but it is possible that Darius now extends and completes
the conquest.
fl
c.510s BC :
Bagabadush / Megabazus : First cousin of Darius I. Satrap?
With Gadara & Harahuwatish.
513
BC :
The unreliable Ctesias claims that Darius orders Ariaramnes, satrap
of Katpatuka, to cross the Black Sea to conduct a preliminary reconnaissance
of the Scythian territories there. Ariaramnes brings back prisoners
which include the brother of the Scythian king, and the resultant
protests give Darius his excuse to go to war in Scythia. Following
the failure of the campaign, Darius leaves Megabazus in command
of the troops.
This could be the Bagabadush who is named in a Persepolis tablet
as the later satrap of Harahuwatish (and, presumably, Thatagush
too - the latter form of the name is usually taken as the Old Persian
version of the former). It could also be the same Megabazus who
commands the Persian forces in the west and later becomes satrap
of Daskyleion.
360s/350s
BC :
Artaxerxes
II is occupied fighting the 'revolt of the satraps' in the western
part of the empire. Nothing is known of events in the eastern half
of the Persian empire at this time, but no word of unrest is mentioned
by Greek writers, however briefly. Given the newsworthiness for
Greeks of any rebellion against the Persian king, this should be
enough to show that the east remains solidly behind the king. It
seems that all of the empire's troubles hinge on the Greeks during
this period.
330s
BC :
By
this time, Persian control of Hindush and Thatagush seems either
to have weakened or has been devolved. Three kingships are known
from Alexander's campaigns in the region in 327-326 BC and must
therefore exist prior to his arrival as two of them are in a state
of ongoing conflict. A similar situation exists in Hindush.
King Ambhi rules Taxila (Takshasila, now known as Sirkap),
an important town on the eastern bank of the River Indus close to
its northern headwaters, and immediately opposite the province of
Gadara (now in northern Pakistan). Having served as the Persian
capital of the Hindush satrapy, it commands access to three important
trade routes, one of these also being a major route into India itself,
and is therefore strategically important. Ambhi, it would seem,
is the senior of the three kings, and the conflict is due to the
others refusing to acknowledge his seniority. These local rulers
are shown in green text to highlight their technically
subservient position to the Persian great satrap.
?
- 326 BC :
Taxiles
/ Ambhi / Omphis : King of Taxila. Confirmed as a satrap
by Alexander.
330s
BC :
Ambhi is in conflict with his immediate neighbour across the River
Hydaspes (the modern Jhelum) to the east, King Porus of Paurava.
The territory of Paurava stretches between the Hydaspes and the
Acesines (the modern River Chenab) to the east, both branches of
the Indus at its northern extent and both relatively close together,
making Paurava a relatively minor but still strong kingdom on the
great road into India. Both this kingdom and Taxila are located
in northern Indus.
?
- 326 BC :
Porus
/ Puru / Parvataka : King of Paurava. Confirmed as a satrap
by Alexander.
330s
BC :
Abisares
is a Kashmiri-descended king of Abhira stock. His mountain domain
is also known as Abisares (to the Greeks, probably modern
Hazara). Its location cannot be pinned down with accuracy but the
north-western part of modern Peshawar in Pakistan may be a close
match. However, the area between the upper Jhelam and Chenab has
been identified as a more specific location (modern Islamabad is
immediately west of the Jhelam, with the Chenab a little further
to the east of that). This option proves problematical when looking
at the territorial gains made by King Porus in 326 BC, as it seemingly
falls within his extended realm.
?
- 325 BC :
Abisares
/ Abhisara / Embisarus : King of Abisares. Confirmed as
a satrap by Alexander.
?
- 330 BC :
Barsaentes
: Satrap of Harahuwatish, Hindush, Thatagush & Zranka.
330
- 328 BC :
Barsaentes
is one of the three most senior satraps of the east, the others
being Bessus in Bakhtrish and Satibarzanes of Haraiva. In 330-329
BC, despite the best efforts of Bessus to rally supporters to his
defence of the empire, the Persian provinces of the east are conquered
by the Greek empire under Alexander the Great. He takes the capital
of Harahuwatish in 330 BC.
Barsaentes turns tail when Alexander appears at the border of Zranka
and does not wait for him to reach Harahuwatish. Instead he takes
refuge in the region of the 'Mountain Indians', a contingent of
whom he had commanded at Gaugamela. These facts (probably) indicate
that Barsaentes is also responsible for the province of Hindush,
the home of the Mountain Indians, and therefore that it is a main
satrapy of Harahuwatish. Barsaentes is captured and handed over
to Alexander in 327 BC by King Taxiles.
Argead
Dynasty in the Northern Indus :
Incorporating Ambisares, Paurava, & Taxila
The
Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who reached
their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his two successors
before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic sections. Following
Alexander's conquest of central and eastern Persia in 331-328 BC,
the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's death in 323
BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's
successors held no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals
who really held control of Alexander's empire. Following that latter
period and during the course of several wars, the region was left
in the hands of the Seleucid empire from 312 BC.
One of the most informative sources when attempting to reconstruct
the satrapal administration of Arachosia and Gedrosia is that of
Alexander's appointments. In northern Arachosia, when he first encountered
its large administrative complex, Alexander made important decisions
about Drangiana, Gedrosia, and Indus (both the north and also Southern
Indus). These regions were therefore subsumed in the Arachosian
administrative complex. During subsequent years Alexander's many
adjustments in this province are not easy to interpret, partly because
some of the appointed officers lost their lives during disturbances
and through illness. However, the fact that Sibyrtius was satrap
of Arachosia and Gedrosia is very good evidence that the two provinces
were ruled or overseen from Arachosia.
Buddhist literature, especially the Jatakas, mentions Taxila
(now known as Sirkap) as the capital of the 'kingdom of Gandhar'.
Under the Persians, this region was formed into the official satrapy
or province of Thatagush, while Taxila, on the east bank of the
River Hydaspes (the modern Jhelum) seems to have broken away from
Gandhara at some point during Persian governance, and formed a small
but powerful independent kingdom. Its eastern neighbour, Paurava,
may also have formed part of Thatagush and was now also independent.
Both states, in the Northern Indus region, would have to be conquered
by Alexander, although Taxila acquiesced on friendly terms. As a
result it flourished under Greek protection and influence, becoming
a vast, modern city of its age.
(Additional information from the Mudrarakshasa, Vishakhadatta
(Playwright), from the Parishishtaparvan, Acharya Hemachandra,
from Anabasis Alexandri, Arrian of Nicomedia, from The
Generalship of Alexander the Great, J F C Fuller, from the Historical
Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J Woronoff & I Spence,
from Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography
of Alexander's Empire, Waldemar Heckel (Ed), from A Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith (London,
1873), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica,
and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and The Second Achilles.)
330
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : King of Macedonia. Conquered
Persia.
323
- 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander
the Great.
317
- 310 BC :
Alexander IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander the
Great and Roxana.
327
- 325 BC :
Philip
(Son of Machatus) : Greek satrap of northern Indus. Assassinated.
327
- 326 BC :
King
Ambhi rules Taxila (Takshasila), an important town on the
eastern bank of the River Indus close to its northern headwaters,
and immediately opposite the province of Gandhar (now in northern
Pakistan). Having served as the Persian capital of the Hindush satrapy,
it commands access to three important trade routes, one of these
also being a major route into India itself, and is therefore strategically
important.
Ambhi
is in conflict with his immediate neighbour across the River Hydaspes
(the modern Jhelum) to the east, King Porus of Paurava. The territory
of Paurava stretches between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (the
modern River Chenab) to the east, both branches of the Indus at
its northern extent and both relatively close together, making Paurava
a relatively minor but still strong kingdom on the great road into
India. Both this kingdom and Taxila are located in northern Indus.
Ambhi, it would seem, is the senior of the kings, and the conflict
is due to a refusal to acknowledge his seniority. (These local rulers
are shown in green text.)
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
326
- 321? BC :
Taxiles
/ Ambhi / Omphis : King of Taxila. Satrap of Taxila region
in northern Indus.
326
- 321? BC :
Porus
/ Puru / Parvataka : King of Paurava. Satrap of Paurava
region in Indus. Killed.
326
BC :
Ambhi invites Alexander into his kingdom in 326 BC and allies himself
to the Greeks in return for help against Porus. Porus fights Alexander
at the Battle of the Hydaspes (generally assigned to Mong in the
Punjab) and, although defeated, his courage and determination are
rewarded. While Ambhi is confirmed as satrap of his part of Indus,
Porus has his own territory extended eastwards to the River Hyphasis
(the modern Beas), more than trebling its size. He is confirmed
as satrap of this region. Presumably both are under the administrative
gaze of the Greek satrap of northern Indus, although this is not
stated by ancient authors.
Abisares
is a Kashmiri-descended king of Abhira stock. His mountain domain
is also known as Abisares (to the Greeks, probably modern Hazara).
Its location cannot be pinned down with accuracy but the north-western
part of modern Peshawar in Pakistan may be a close match. However,
the area between the upper Jhelam and Chenab has been identified
as a more specific location (modern Islamabad is immediately west
of the Jhelam, with the Chenab a little further to the east of that).
This option proves problematical when looking at the territorial
gains made by King Porus, as it seemingly falls within his extended
realm.
King
Abisares of the eponymous kingdom has sent emissaries to Alexander
both before and after his battle at the Hydaspes. Generally a supporter
of Porus, he is confirmed by Alexander as satrap of his kingdom's
territory, along with an extension of territory. His name may be
a royal title, one which is inherited by his son upon his own accession.
326
- 325 BC :
Abisares
/ Abhisara / Embisarus : King of Abisares. Satrap of Abisares.
Died.
325
BC :
Following Alexander's return westwards, Satrap Philip of northern
Indus is assassinated as the result of a conspiracy which has been
formed amongst mercenary troops under his command. This appears
to be with the encouragement of Chandragupt who is already busy
forming his Mauryan empire in India. Alexander names Eudamus
and Taxiles as the rulers of his territories in northern Indus until
an official replacement can be sent. It is likely that Alexander
dies before this takes place.
325
- 323 BC :
Eudamus
: Greek satrap of northern Indus. Commander of Greek army.
325
- ? BC :
Abisares
: Son of Abisares and king. Satrap of Abisares.
325
BC :
It is reported to Alexander while he is in Carmania that Abisares,
king of the mountain domain of the same name, has died, to be succeeded
by his son. He is also known as Abisares, making it seem likely
that this is a title conferred on the ruler to show that he and
the kingdom are one. Alexander confirms Abisares in his position,
although the Greeks are not particularly well placed to do anything
other than this. Their control of the far eastern areas of the Indus
has already faded, leaving Abisares largely independent of them.
Nothing more is known of him or his kingdom.
![River Indus](Indus_River01_full.jpg)
The
various territories that made up the satrapy of the Northern Indus
(Punjab) which was centred over the mighty River Indus, alongside
those of Gandhara, would go on to form the heartland of Indo-Greek
control of the east in the remaining centuries BC
321?
- 316 BC :
Eudamus
: Restored in northern Indus. Killed by Antigonus.
321
BC :
With
Philip being reassigned to Parthia, his replacement in the east
is Stasanor the Solian, former satrap of Aria and Drangiana. This
new satrap is the brother to Stasander, his replacement in Aria
and Drangiana. Perhaps he also has more of a focus towards the Northern
Punjab territories than the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, as
later suggested by events. His territory initially extends as far
north as Ferghana, which contains the city of Alexandria Eschate
('the Furthest'), while Stasander also has ambitions.
In
the same year, and following his coronation as the Mauryan king
of central northern India, Chandragupta embarks on his conquest
of a large swathe of the rest of India, starting with central India.
He overcomes all opposition in the territory up to the north of
the River Narmada. Ancient authors mention an alliance between Chandragupta
and the Himalayan King Parvataka (a figure who is sometimes identified
as the King Porus of Paurava who has been an ally of the Greeks
since 326 BC). Whether or not this is the same person, Porus is
assassinated by Satrap Eudamus between 321-315 BC, probably to ensure
his domination of northern Indus.
316
- 312 BC :
The
Wars of the Diadochi decide how Alexander the Great's empire
is carved up between his generals, but the period is very confused,
especially in the east. These provinces appear to be invaded and
controlled by the Antigonids for a period, with General Antigonus
being responsible for the death of Eudamus. However, at some point
in 316 BC, Stasanor the Solian, satrap of Chorasmia, Bactria, and
Sogdiana (with Ferghana) seizes the Northern Indus while his brother
seizes Parthia. Clearly the two are either working in unison with
Seleucus of Babylonia from the beginning or are attempting to stamp
their own independent authority on much of the east. Unfortunately,
Stasander is removed from office in 315 BC.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
316
- 312 BC :
Stasanor
the Solian : Greek satrap of Chorasmia, Bactria, &
Sogdiana.
312
- 305 BC :
Bactria is taken by the Seleucids around 312 BC, with the eastern
provinces probably also being under their control.
305
- 185 BC :
Following
the failure of Seleucus Nicator's Seleucid reconquest of India between
305-303 BC, the Indo-Greek regions of Paropamisadae, Arachosia,
Gandhar, northern Indus, and southern Indus are ceded to the Mauryan
empire as part of an alliance agreement. This territory also includes
the former kingdoms of Taxila and Paurava. Subsequent relations
between the Greeks and the Mauryans appear to be cordial. Seleucus
even appoints Megasthenes as his ambassador to Chandragupta's court.
The former Indo-Greek territories remain a Mauryan possession until
the early years of the second century BC, after which they can be
regained by the Greeks.
Macedonian
Indo-Greeks in the Northern Indus :
Although
Alexander the Great had conquered large areas of north-western India
in 326-325 BC, holding onto that territory proved to be a tough
prospect. The resurgent Indians of the Mauryan empire reclaimed
northern Indus and southern Indus before 305 BC, and a failed campaign
by Seleucus Nicator's Seleucid empire meant that this area, plus
the Indo-Greek regions of Paropamisadae, Arachosia, and Gandhar,
would remain in Mauryan hands until the beginning of the second
century BC. This territory also included the former kingdoms of
Taxila and Paurava in northern Indus. Subsequent relations between
the Greeks and the Mauryans appeared to be cordial, with Seleucus
even appointing Megasthenes as his ambassador to Chandragupta's
court.
The Mauryan empire fell apart in 185 BC, and Demetrius of Bactria
annexed the western half of the empire, including Paropamisadae,
Gandhara, and Arachosia. He advanced as far as the Ganges and Pataliputra,
although this advance is usually ascribed to the later king, Menander
I. Western Punjab was also added to Greek territory.
Upon Demetrius' death in about 180 BC, many successors appeared
in several regions of the enlargened kingdom. Some of them may have
been co-regents, but civil wars and territorial divisions were very
likely, and the split between Bactria and the Indo-Greek kingdom
can be placed at this point. The Indo-Greek kingdom itself was rarely
immune from internal division, with a second split usually forming
between eastern and western sections. For clarification, in this
list 'western' kings are shown in the left-hand column of kings,
while 'eastern' kings are shown on the right.
(Where information conflicts regarding the Indo-Greek territories,
Osmund Bopearachchi's Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques,
Catalogue Raisonné (1991) has been followed. Additional information
by David Kelleher, from Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius
Trogus: Books 11-12, Volume 1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John
Yardley, & Waldemar Heckel, from Life of Apollonius Tyana,
Philostratus, and from External Link: the Ancient History
Encyclopaedia (dead link).)
200/195
- c.180 BC :
Western
Kings :
Demetrius
I : Euthydemid king of Bactria and Indo-Greek territories.
c.185/180
BC :
A
whole rash of rulers appears after the death of Demetrius. Some
of them may be sub-rulers, but equally, some of them may be rulers
of domains carved out of the kingdom itself, with shifting alliances
and fortunes. Indo-Greek territory is pushed as far as Pataliputra.
![Map of Bactria and India 200 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-200BC_full.jpg)
The
kingdom of Bactria (shown in white) was at the height of its power
around 200-180 BC, with fresh conquests being made in the south-east,
encroaching into India just as the Mauryan empire was on the verge
of collapse, while around the northern and eastern borders dwelt
various tribes that would eventually contribute to the downfall
of the Greeks - the Sakas and Tocharians
c.185
- 175 BC :
Pantaleon
: Brother? In Arachosia.
c.180
- 165 BC :
Agathocles
: Brother? In Paropamisadae.
180?
- 165? BC :
Antimachus
I Theos : Brother? In Bactria, Paropamisadae and Arachosia.
c.180/175
- 160 BC :
Apollodotus I : In Paropamisadae, Arachosia, & Western
Indus.
175
- 170/165 BC :
Demetrius
II : Son of Antimachus I. In Paropamisadae & Arachosia.
c.175
BC :
Demetrius
II rules in Paropamisadae and Arachosia as a sub-king or joint ruler
with his father, the Bactrian king, Antimachus I. While he is campaigning
in the east, a usurper arises in the west in about 170 BC.
c.170?
BC :
Following
the attack of Eucratides I in Bactria on their rule, the Euthydemid
kings pull in their eastern border to Mathura. Eucratides is opposed
by Demetrius II, who apparently returns to Bactria with 60,000 men
to oust the usurper, but he is defeated and killed in the encounter.
Antimachus I also fights against Eucratides, but ultimately loses
in around 160 BC and Eucratides seems to occupy territory as far
as the Indus. The Euthydemids are pushed out of Bactria, but they
retain most of their Indo-Greek territories.
171
- 145 BC :
Eucratides
I / Eukratides I : Bactrian. In Paropamisadae, Arachosia,
W Indus.
160
- 155 BC :
Antimachus
II Nikephoros : In Paropamisadae, Arachosia, & Western
Indus.
Eumenes : Co-regent. Otherwise unknown.
c.160
BC :
Antimachus
II is either the son of Demetrius II or Antimachus I, and serves
as co-regent until the deaths of both rulers. It is possible that
Apollodotus I becomes the senior ruler until he too dies in 160
BC, at which point Antimachus II heads the kingdom.
c.155
BC :
In
the west, Menander seems to repel the invasion by Eucratides from
Bactria, and pushes him back as far as Paropamisadae, thereby consolidating
the rule of the Indo-Greek kings in northern India. After this,
the Indo-Greek kingdom is permanently divided from Bactria.
![A silver tetradrachm of Eucratides I of Bactria](Indo-Greeks_Coins04_full.jpg)
The
successor to Antimachus I of Bactria was Eucratides I, with this
silver tetradrachm being minted in his image at some point during
the twenty-six years or so of his reign
Menander
is the most famous Indo-Greek king, although his relationship to
the other kings is unknown (he may have been one of Demetrius II's
generals). He rules from Taxila (Sirkap) and later from Sagala,
a very prosperous city in northern Indus (modern Sialkot), and he
rebuilds Taxila and Pushkalavati. His rule includes areas of the
Panjshir and Kapisa, and extends to Punjab with diffuse tributaries
to the south and east, probably as far as Mathura. He may also occupy
Sunga Saraostus (modern Saurashtra and parts of south-western Gujarat)
and Sigerdis (probably modern Sindh, the Indus Delta) for a short
period. He becomes a Buddhist, further promoting the always-friendly
relations between the faith and the Indo-Greeks, and in India he
is known as the great King Milinda who debates Buddhist doctrines
with Nagasena.
c.155
- 130 BC :
Menander
I Soter : In Paropamisadae, Western Indus & Eastern
Indus (Punjab).
c.140
- 130 BC :
Sakas have long been pressing against the borders of the far distant
Greek kingdom of Bactria. Now, following a long migration from the
borders of the Chinese kingdoms, the Greater Yuezhi start to invade
Bactria from Sogdiana to the north. Initially, Saka elements who
are already in Bactria become vassals to the Greater Yuezhi.
c.130
BC :
At
around the time of Menander's death, the Greater Yuezhi overrun
Bactria and end Greek rule there, isolating the remaining Greeks
east of the Hindu Kush. Heliocles (I) of Bactria may possibly invade
the western part of the Indo-Greek kingdom, as there are strong
suggestions that the Eucratids continue to rule there, especially
in Heliocles' presumed son, Lysias.
Probable
members of Menander's dynasty include Queen Agathokleia, her son
Strato I, and Nicias, though it is uncertain whether they rule directly
after Menander. The king himself is briefly succeeded by his infant
son, Thrason, as witnessed by a single surviving coin, but after
Thrason is murdered other kings emerge, usually in the western territories,
such as Zoilos I, Lysias, Antialcidas, and Philoxenos, and these
rulers may be relatives either of the Euthydemids or surviving Eucratids
who are forced eastwards by the collapse of Bactria.
![Menander coin](Indo-Greeks_Coins03_full.jpg)
This
photo depicts the single obverse side of a coin that was issued
by the Indo-Greek King Menander, known in India as the great King
Milinda
There
are no historical records of events in the Indo-Greek kingdom after
Menander's death, since the Indo-Greeks have by now become very
isolated from the rest of the Greco-Roman world. Events from this
point are reconstructed almost entirely from archaeological and
numismatic analyses.
c.130
BC :
Thrason : Son. In Paropamisadae, Arachosia, & W Indus
(Punjab).
c.150?
- 125? BC :
Zoilus
/ Zoilos I :
Euthydemid? In Paropamisadae &
Arachosia.
According
to numismatic evidence, Zolius rules during the reign of Menander,
as the latter king overstrikes two of his coins. Upon Menender's
death his queen, Agathokleia, apparently manages to flee east with
her child (the future Strato I) in the face of Zoilus' appropriation
of much of her husband's realm, and establishes a realm of her own
there. Alternatively, Menander himself may previously have relocated
east to the Indus (Punjab), where the mint marks on his coins had
changed, and this territory is then handed onto his wife and son
upon his death.
c.150?
- 125? BC :
Agathokleia
: Queen. In Paropamisadae & W Indus (Punjab).
c.130
- 120 BC :
Lysias
Aniketos (the Invincible) : In Paropamisadae & Arachosia
(& W Indus?).
Probably
the son of Heliocles I of Bactria, coins for Lysias have been found
in the Punjab and it seems likely that he extends his control to
both halves of the Indo-Greek kingdom for a period, placing his
son as regent in Taxila. This makes understandable the fact that
Lysias imitates Demetrius before him, claiming that he is also a
conqueror of 'India' - which to the Greeks means Paropamisadae and
Indus (Punjab).
c.120?
BC :
Antialcidas
: Son? Co-ruler. In northern Indus. King from c.115 BC.
c.120
- 110 BC :
Strato
I Epiphanes : Son of Menander. In Paropamisadae & W
Indus (Punjab).
115
- 100 BC :
With
Parthian territory having been harried for years by the Sakas, King
Mithridates II is finally able to take control of the situation.
First he defeats the Greater Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BC, and then
he defeats the Sakas in Parthia and around Seistan (in Drangiana)
around 100 BC. After their defeat, the Greater Yuezhi tribes concentrate
on consolidation in Bactria-Tokharistan while the Sakas are diverted
into Indo-Greek Gandhar. The western territories of Aria, Drangiana,
and Margiana would appear to remain Parthian dependencies.
![A coin of Mithradates II the Great of Parthia](Parthians_Coin01_full.jpg)
Two
sides of a silver tetradrachm which was issued during the reign
of Mithradates the Great of Parthia, with the obverse (left) shown
a bearded bust of the king who stabilised the empire's eastern borders
with the Sakas and Greater Yuezhi
c.115
- 100 BC :
Antialcidas
: In Paropamisadae & Arachosia.
110
BC :
The
Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha in central India records that the Indo-Greek
king Antialcidas sends an ambassador to the court of the Sunga king,
Bhagabhadra, at or before this date.
c.110
- 100 BC :
Heliocles
II : In Paropamisadae & W Indus (Punjab).
c.100
BC :
Polyxenios
: In Paropamisadae & Arachosia.
c.100
BC :
Demetrius
III : In Paropamisadae & W Indus. Numismatic evidence
only.
100
- 95 BC :
Philoxenus : In Paropamisadae, Arachosia, W & E Indus
(Punjab).
c.100
- 70 BC :
Philoxenus
briefly rules the whole of the remaining Indo-Greek territory. He
may even extend his rule as far as the city of Mathura (in modern
Uttar Pradesh), according to an inscription there. From 95 BC the
territories fragment again, with the western kings regaining their
territory as far west as Arachosia. Some time after 70 BC, Mathura
is lost to Indian kings, as is south-eastern Indus (Punjab).
The
subsequent line of alternating rulers in both Arachosia and Paropamisadae
and then Paropamisadae alone suggests the possibility that the latter
are sub-kings. They are linked to this region by their coin issuances
alone, with no surviving written record to back up their status,
while any potential agreements or conflicts between the kings is
also absent from the historical record.
c.95
- 90 BC :
Diomedes
: In Paropamisadae.
c.95
- 90 BC :
Amyntas
: In Arachosia & Paropamisadae.
c.95
- 90 BC :
Epander
: In W Indus (Punjab).
c.90
BC :
Theophilos
: In Paropamisadae.
c.90
BC :
Peukolaos
: In Arachosia & Paropamisadae.
c.90
BC :
Thraso
: In W Indus (Punjab).
c.90
- 85 BC :
Nicias
: In Paropamisadae.
c.90
- 85 BC :
Menander
II : In Arachosia & Paropamisadae.
c.90
- 85 BC :
Artemidoros
: In W Indus. (Son of Maues of the Sakas?)
c.90
- 70 BC :
Hermaeus
Soter : In Paropamisadae. Last Indo-Greek king here (to
50 BC?).
c.90
- 70 BC :
Hermaeus,
or Hermaios, seems to share the throne with his wife, Kalliope,
in the early days of his reign. He pursues an aggressive foreign
policy and re-conquers some territories which his predecessors had
lost. However, his success is only transitory and the Indo-Greeks
find themselves surrounded by powerful enemies. Eventually Hermaios
is defeated by the Kushans, bringing to an end any Indo-Greek efforts
to regain Paropamisadae.
![Hermaios coin from Gandhara](IndoGreek_HermaiosCoins01_full.jpg)
A
Hermaeus coin from Paropamisadae at the beginning of the first century
AD. The rear of the coin shows Zeus enthroned and facing three quarters
to the left, right hand extended, and holding a sceptre in his left
hand, with a monogram in the field to the left
c.90
- 70 BC :
Archebios : In Arachosia, Paropamisadae, & W Indus
(Punjab).
c.80
BC :
Maues,
a Saka king (cousins to the Parthians who are diverted by them from
Iran), takes control in Paropamisadae before the Indo-Greeks regain
control there after his death. The Indo-Greeks progressively lose
ground to the Indians in the east, and the Sakas, Greater Yuezhi,
and Parthians in the west.
Maues
issues some coins jointly with a Queen Machene, who may be an Indo-Greek
ruler. The Indo-Greek king, Artemidoros (c.90-85 BC), describes
himself as 'son of Maues'. Curiously, the contemporary of Artemidoros
in Indo-Greek Paropamisadae (western Indo-Greek territory) is Hermaeus
Soter (who still reigns at this time, see above). The name is surprisingly
close to that of Maues, and Hermaeus holds a level of importance
with nomad rulers during and after his reign, with his coins being
copied far and wide, especially by the Greater Yuezhi, Sakas, and
Kushans.
c.75
- 70 BC :
Telephos
: In Paropamisadae.
c.75
- 70 BC :
Apollodotus
II : In Western & Eastern Indus (Punjab).
c.70
BC :
The
Sakas expel the Indo-Greeks from Arachosia but subsequently lose
it to the Parthians. Parthian rule seems to be limited and perhaps
doesn't include the entire region. Paropamisadae is also permanently
lost to the Greater Yuezhi upon the death of Hermaeus Soter.
c.65
- 55 BC :
Hippostratus
: In Western Indus (Punjab).
c.55
BC :
Hippostratus is one of the most successful late Indo-Greek kings,
until he loses to the Saka king, Azes I, who establishes his own
dynasty in Western Punjab. An alliance between Azes and the Indo-Greeks
may be agreed after this, as they continue to rule eastern Indus
(Punjab).
![Map of Central Asia & India c.50 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-50BC_full.jpg)
By
the period between 100-50 BC the Greek kingdom of Bactria had fallen
and the remaining Indo-Greek territories (shown in white) had been
squeezed towards eastern Punjab. India was partially fragmented,
and the once tribal Sakas were coming to the end of a period of
domination of a large swathe of territory in modern Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and north-western India. The dates within their lands
(shown in yellow) show their defeats of the Greeks that had gained
them those lands, but they were very soon to be overthrown in the
north by the Kushans while still battling for survival against the
Satvahans of India
c.65
- 55 BC :
Dionysios
: In eastern Indus (Punjab).
c.55
- 35 BC :
Zoilus
/ Zoilos II : In eastern Indus (Punjab).
c.55
- 35 BC :
Apollophanes
: In eastern Indus (Punjab).
c.50
BC? :
The
Kushans capture the territory of the Sakas in modern Afghanistan.
They probably also cause the downfall of Indo-Greek King Hermaeus,
as they conquer Paropamisadae in the process. The Sakas consolidate
their rule in northern India as compensation for the loss of Paropamisadae.
They also fight the Satvahans in India, and later enter into matrimonial
alliances with them.
c.25
BC - AD 10 :
Strato
II : In Indus (Punjab). Last Indo-Greek king.
c.AD
10 :
The
Indo-Greek kingdom disappears under Saka pressure. It seems to be
Rajuvula, the Saka kshatrapa in Mathura at this time, who
invades what is virtually the last free Indo-Greek territory in
the eastern Indus (Punjab), and kills Strato II and his son. Pockets
of Greek population probably remain for some centuries under the
subsequent rule of the Kushans and Indo-Parthians, and a possible
enclave of Greek rule is apparently maintained briefly in Paropamisadae.
1st
century AD :
Phraotes
: In Taxila of Indo-Parthian Gandhar.
The
somewhat dubious Phraotes is sometimes equated with the Indo-Parthian
King Gondophares. A Greek-speaking Indo-Greek king of Taxila named
Phraotes is allegedly met by the Greek philosopher, Apollonius of
Tyana, somewhere close to AD 46, although the writer of Apollonius'
biography is known to use the name as a stock feature to fill in
some of the gaps.
However,
despite the Kushan ruler, Kadphises, seemingly inflicting a substantial
territorial defeat on the Indo-Parthians around this time, the Indo-Parthians
still survive in modern northern India and Pakistan, mainly Sakastan
(former Saka territory) and Arachosia, with perhaps tendrils of
territory reaching into Gedrosia and even Gandhar and its capital
of Taxila where Gondophares may still be ruling.
1st
century AD :
Theodamus
: In the Bajaur area of Indo-Parthian Gandhar.
Theodamus
is the last Indo-Greek ruler of any kind to be noted, but only by
an inscription on a signet ring. Possibly he governs as a vassal
in this last stronghold of Indo-Greek influence in the region.
c.70
:
Sarpedones
succeeds as ruler of the Indo-Parthian kingdom and adopts the name
Gondophares. His rule is not nearly so certain as that of his more
illustrious predecessor, however. Issues of his coinage are somewhat
fragmented, appearing in Arachosia, eastern Punjab (a region which
could be included in the former satrapy of northern Indus), and
Sindh.
![Sarpedones coin](Pahlava_Coins02_full.jpg)
Shown
here are both sides of a coin issued during the rule of Sarpedones
(Gondophares II), with him diademed and draped on the left and the
goddess Nike standing on the right
c.100
:
The
Kushans, descendants of the Greater Yuezhi who had conquered Bactria
around 130 BC, capture Arachosia (now south-eastern Afghanistan)
from the Indo-Parthians, although the dating is very uncertain.
c.200
- 400 :
The
descendants of Greek artists who entered the region with Alexander
the Great and who had subsequently settled there during the Hellenistic
period construct the Bamiyan Bhuddas.
2001
:
The
Bamiyan Bhuddas are destroyed by the Taleban rulers of Afghanistan.
By 2008 a project to rebuild one of them is underway, to be completed
in 2009.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsFarEast/IndiaIndoGreek.htm
#Persians