ROME
According
to legend, Rome was founded as a city state by the Latin prince,
Romulus on 21 April 753 BC. He was the city's first king, but after
his death, the city was drawn under Etruscan rule in the form of
a 'Kingdom of Rome'. The Etruscans governed large areas of the Italian
peninsula to the north of Rome, and ruled the city as the southernmost
of a chain of semi-independent city states, although there were
further Etruscan settlements in the Campania region to the south.
When
the weakening Etruscans were ejected in 509 BC, a 'Republic of Rome'
was founded in its place, although there was for a time stiff opposition
from a body of monarchists. Rome gradually began to established
the greatness which would be the 'Empire of Rome' from the first
century AD. The empire survived until the last quarter of the fifth
century AD, when it was replaced by a Gothic kingdom which strived
for continuity. By that time Rome was no longer the capital, having
been found to be hard to defend.
Europe
had changed a great deal in that time. The Germanic tribes now dominated
large swathes of the continent in the west and central regions,
while the east was fast becoming home to waves of nomadic Turkic
invaders from the east. Rome's western empire failed to survive
the speed and ferocity of the changes, but its Eastern Roman empire
continued for another millennium.
Republic of Rome :
Incorporating the Ferrentani & Latins
509 - 28 BC :
Fresh
from expelling the Etruscan king of Rome, the rebellious nobles
set up a republic. This was not a unique event in the ancient world.
Several Greek cities had done the same, and a similar wave of revolts
and changes from kingship to republic subsequently gripped the Etruscan
city states in the fifth and fourth centuries. However, expelling
Etruscan kings did not remove Etruscan influence overnight. A large
number of the nobles had strong Etruscan links that would take another
couple of generations to fade.
In
Rome, two consuls were elected each year to govern (with some breaks)
alongside the Senate, over which they presided. Dictators (Latin
for 'one who dictates' or gives orders) - also known as the praetor
maximus, the supreme praetor, or magister populi, master of the
people - were elected to temporary office (usually a six month term)
during periods of emergency. The first two consuls were Lucius Junius
Brutus, leader of the anti-Etruscan rebellion, and Tarquinius Collatinus
(both Etruscans). Roman dating often used 'anno urbe condita' (AUC),
meaning 'in the year of the city', with AUC 1 being the traditional
founding of Rome in 753 BC. Another way of dating events was to
link them to the names of the two current consuls.
Mentioned
by Livy in connection with events in 319 BC, the Ferrentani (or
Ferentani) are otherwise unknown. It is generally thought that they
are in fact the Frentani, the Samnites' Sabellian neighbours on
the Adriatic coast. However, during this period the Romans would
not have dared post their forces far away from Latium or provoke
the Samnites by placing armed forces along their eastern borders.
Instead, the Ferrentani must be the Forentani, placed by Pliny in
Campania and Latium, much closer to Rome.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from Magistrates of the Roman Republic, T R S Broughton, from The
Roman History: From Romulus and the Foundation of Rome to the Reign
of the Emperor Tiberius, Velleius Paterculus, J C Yardley, &
Anthony A Barrett, from The History of Rome, Volume 1, Titus Livius,
translated by Rev Canon Roberts, from Samnium and the Samnites,
E T Salmon, from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, from Continuity and
Innovation in Religion in the Roman West, R Haeussler, Anthony C
King & Phil Andrews, from Liber Prodigiorum, Julius Obsequens,
from Periocha, Livy, from Res Gestae, Ammianus Marcellinus, from
Valerius Maximus, Pseudo-Quintilian, and Paulus Orosius, from Epitome
of Roman History, Florus, from Historia Romana, Cassius Dio, from
Flavius Eutropius, from Strategemata, Frontinius, from 'Breviary',
Sextus Festus, from St Jerome Emiliani (Hieronymus), from Getica,
Jordanes, from The Getae in Southern Dobruja in the Period of the
Roman Domination: Archaeological Aspects, S Torbatov, and from External
Links: Perseus Digital Library, and The Works of Julius Caesar:
Gallic Wars, and Polybius, Histories, and the Encyclopædia
Britannica, and from the Journal of Celtic Studies in Eastern Europe
and Asia-Minor.)
509 - 507 BC :
The former Etruscan king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, attempts
several times to regain control of the city. In 507 BC he enlists
the help of Lars Porsena, ruler of Etruscan Clevsin. Lars Porsena
attacks Rome and probably captures it (although the Roman version
of events paints a more flattering picture from their point of view,
with Porsena saluting their brave defenders and withdrawing without
completing his attempt). Porsena's occupation is brief, perhaps
ending after a peace treaty is signed.
![Etruscan art](Etruscan_Art01_full.jpg)
Early
Etruscan civilisation was heavily influenced by the Phoenicians
and Greeks and, in turn, it influenced early Roman (Latin) culture
With
the ending of Etruscan rule, the states of the Latin League fail
to unify, instead vying with each other for dominance. The balance
of power shifts often between Rome and other influential cities
such as Alba Longa and Lavinium.
505 - 504 BC :
Again it is Livy who records fresh conflict between the Sabini and
the new republic of Rome. Again the Sabini come off second best
(in 505 BC), and the two Roman consuls of this year celebrate a
triumph in Rome. The following year, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
is appointed dictator of the Sabini, who play a leading part in
the fresh conflict that erupts. The Fidenates (of the former Etruscan
town of Fidenae) and Camerians (of the settlements Cameria) are
brought in to assist them. The allied army marches on Rome and is
stopped at the River Teverone (Latin Anio, modern Aniene). A planned
night attack by the Sabini is leaked to the Romans, and turns into
a Sabini massacre. Tarquinius manages to escape but his campaign
(and presumably his dictatorship of the Sabini) comes to an end.
503
BC :
Livy describes how the Latin colonies of Cora and Pometia rebel
against Rome's domination of the region. In their fight the colonies
unite with the Aurunci. Rome sends two armies against them and a
hard-fought battle results in defeat for the rebels, with a high
number of casualties. Few prisoners are taken, it seems, and even
those are butchered in a blood-thirsty rampage by the Roman troops.
The rebels retire to Pometia, followed by the Roman armies who besiege
them. An Aurunci sally forces the Romans to withdraw with losses,
but they return, take the town, behead the Aurunci officers, sell
the Pometians into slavery, level the buildings, and sell off the
land.
501 BC :
Titus Lartius Flavus : Dictator.
Member of an Etruscan family.
501 BC :
Titus Lartius commands forces against the thirty Latin cities that
have sworn to reinstate Lucius Tarquinius Superbus as the king of
Rome. Aruns of the Etruscan city of Clevsin may be the Aruns Tarquinius
who is a son of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, and the brother of Lucius
Tarquinius. This Aruns is the subject of a plot involving his brother
and his wife, Tullia, daughter of Servius Tullius, former king of
Rome. They conspire to murder Lucius' wife (another Tullia who is
also a daughter of Servius Tullius) and Aruns himself so that they
can marry each other.
![Alba Longa](AlbaLonga_Ruins01_full.jpg)
A
romantic view of the ruins of Alba Longa, following its destruction
by Rome under Tullus Hostilius in the seventh century BC
501 BC :
Manius Valerius : Dictator.
498 BC :
Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis : Dictator.
496 - 493 BC :
The various political intrigues and schemes of the Latin states
turn to war when Lavinium breaks its alliance with Rome in an attempt
to secure power. Members of the Latin League unite with Lavinium
and Tusculum and move against Rome. At the battle of Lake Regillus,
Rome claims the victory over the combined might of her neighbours,
and the result proves Rome's capacity to stand alone against all-comers.
The war draws to a close in 493 BC with the Latin League claiming
independence from Rome. The Treaty of Cassius ensures this independence
but places Rome on what is virtually a status equal with all of
the other members of the Latin League combined.
495
BC :
The Aurunci field an army in support of the Volsci against Rome.
While on the march, they send envoys ahead to demand that Rome withdraws
from Volsci territory. The reply is a consular army under Publius
Servilus Priscus Structus which meets them at Arricia and ends the
war in a single, victorious battle. The Aurunci, or Opici, are thoroughly
put down.
494
BC :
Manius Valerius Maximus : Dictator
for the second time.
492 BC :
Thanks to his defeat of the Volsci town of Corioli, the Roman patrician
Gneus Marcius is given the cognomen Coriolanus. Promoted to general,
he attempts to abolish the office of plebeian tribune in Rome, which
he believes is responsible for a grain shortage. The tribunes fight
back with false charges of misappropriation of public funds, and
he is forced into exile. Coriolanus seeks shelter with the Volsci
and eventually leads an army against Rome. Town after town is captured
along the way and Rome looks set to fall, until Coriolanus' mother
and wife are sent to placate him. He relents and retires, but having
now committed acts of disloyalty towards both Rome and the Volsci,
he is soon tried and then conveniently assassinated.
![Rieti](Sabini_Rieti01_full.jpg)
The
Sabini (Hernici) settlement of Reate (modern Rieti) was founded
by the Sabini and prospered under Roman control to survive into
the modern age
486 BC :
The Hernici have become highly adapted to Latin culture and customs.
Under pressure from the Aequi and Volsci, they join the mutual protection
treaty between the Romans and Latins. The armies defending Latium
now consist of Romans, Latins and Hernici. As time passes and the
alliance grows more essential to survival, the Hernici are absorbed
into Latin culture and largely vanish as a separately identifiable
people.
477
BC :
As a close neighbour of Rome, the powerful Etruscan city of Veii
is seen as a serious rival and even a threat to its existence. A
long-running series of wars results, starting in this year. Despite
having major Etruscan connections, the Fabian Gens, one of the most
powerful familial groups in Rome, builds a defensive post on land
between the two cities which they own but which is subject to heavy
cattle raiding by both sides. Veii attacks the post which is held
by the semi-private army of the Fabii. The resulting Battle of the
Cremora sees three hundred Fabii killed and the area abandoned to
the Veiians. Veii now controls the entire west bank of the Tiber,
including the Janiculum Hill which overlooks Rome. Less than a year
later, Veii's navy is crushed off the coast of Cumae and the city
is forced to agree a treaty with Rome.
463
BC :
Gaius Aemilius Mamercus? : Possibly
not a dictator, but an interrex.
458 BC :
Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus : Dictator
for 16 days to rescue Minucius' trapped army.
444 BC :
For an unspecific period of time, Rome replaces its two civilian
consuls with three military officers with consular powers, known
as the tribuni militum consularii potestate. Two other magistrates,
the censors, are instituted with a term of office lasting
eighteen months in order to examine the property rolls of citizens
and determine who has the privilege and responsibility of providing
military service. Military service is not an option for men of little
or no property.
![Roman consuls](Rome_Consuls01_full.jpg)
Rome's
republic was usually heading by two consuls and the Senate, but
on a very few occasions the post was replaced
439 BC :
Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus : Dictator.
Called a second time from his farm to defend Rome.
437 BC :
Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus : Dictator.
435 BC :
Quintus Servilius Priscus Fidenas : Dictator.
434 BC :
Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus : Dictator
for the second time.
431 BC :
The Volsci control much of southern Latium (Cora, Velitrae, Satricum,
and Antium), and they continue to pressure the Latins. In addition,
the Aequi are said to reach Rome itself, and a decisive battle between
the Latins and the Volsci appears to be fought in this year. The
Romans, under the command of Aulus Postumius Tubertus, again meet
the Aequi at the Algidus Pass, but this time they are victorious.
With this victory the Romans are able to open an aggressive offensive
which the Volsci are unable to withstand forever.
431
BC :
Aulus Postumius Tubertus : Dictator.
Defeated the Aequi.
428 BC :
Rome fights the Etruscan city of Veii again, possibly resulting
in the loss to the Etruscans of Fidemae (either at this point or
in 406 BC).
![River Liris](Volsci_RiverLiris01_full.jpg)
The
ancient River Liris (now divided into the Liri and the Gari) along
its upper length was an early home to the Volsci, and later formed
Rome's border with the Samnites
426 BC :
Mamercus
Aemilius Mamercinus : Dictator
for the third time.
418 BC :
Quintus Servilius Priscus Fidenas : Dictator
for the second time.
408 BC :
Publius Cornelius Rutilus Cossus : Dictator.
396 BC :
Marcus Furius Camillus : Dictator.
396 BC :
After a ten year siege, the once-dominant Etruscan city of Veii
is conquered by its former subject city, Rome, under the command
of Marcus Furius Camillus. (More recent views tend to lean towards
a six year siege, with the ten year claim being made in order to
draw parallels with the fall of Troy.) With Veii's fall, a key southern
defence is lost, leaving the Etruscans under pressure from all sides
by several different forces. The city is later rebuilt as a Roman
colony.
391
- 376 BC :
For the second time in its republican history, Rome's consuls are
again replaced by military tribunes, this time very shortly before
the city comes under attack from the Celts.
390
BC :
Marcus Furius Camillus : Dictator
for the second time.
389 BC :
Marcus Furius Camillus : Dictator
for the third time.
389 BC :
Brennus and his band of Senones Celts sack Rome, with only the Capitoline
Hill standing out against them. The citizens of Rome are forced
to pay a thousand pounds in gold to buy off the Celts (a pretty
low sum by Roman standards, which perhaps outrages them more than
the city being sacked in the first place). Rome afterwards takes
steps to ensure the city is never again placed in such a position.
![Camillus Rescuing Rome from Brennus](Rome_BrenniusSacking389BC_01_full.jpg)
Dictator
Marcus Furius Camillus may have been instrumental in persuading
Brennus and his Gauls to leave Rome following its sacking in 389
BC, as painted around 1716-1720
385 BC :
Aulus Cornelius Cossus : Dictator.
380 BC :
Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus : Dictator.
377 BC :
By the 390s the Romans and Latins had regained control of the plains
of Latium and relegated the Aequi and Volsci to the western highlands.
The Volsci are finally defeated with the capture of the port of
Antium in 377 BC, and the defeated Aequi are doomed to be destroyed
within the century.
370
- 367 BC :
For the third time Rome replaces its consuls with military tribunes.
The reason may lie with the continuing - and menacing in Rome's
eyes - presence of large numbers of Celts in northern Italy.
368
BC :
Marcus Furius Camillus : Dictator
for the fourth time.
368 BC :
Publius Manlius Capitolinus : Dictator.
367 BC :
Marcus Furius Camillus : Dictator
for the fifth time.
363 BC :
Lucius Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus : Dictator.
362 BC :
Appius Claudius Crassus Inregillensis : Dictator.
361 BC :
T Q Poenus Capitolinus Crispinus : Dictator.
(Tiberius Quinctius.)
360 BC :
Quintus Servilius Ahala : Dictator.
358 BC :
Gaius Sulpicius Peticus : Dictator.
356 BC :
Gaius Marcius Rutilus : Dictator.
354 BC :
The Samnites agree a treaty with Rome, the first concrete historical
record of their existence. It sets their border along the River
Liris (now divided into the Liri and the Gari, with the one meeting
the other shortly before the latter flows into the Tyrrhenian Sea
at the Garigliano), and may in part be a joint defensive pact against
Celtic incursions from the north.
![Map of the Samnites](Samnite_Map01_full.jpg)
The
orange area shows the general territory under the control of the
Samnites, while the location of each of their divisions, along with
the Frentani, is shown within that territory
353 BC :
Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus : Dictator.
c.353 BC :
The Etruscan city of Caisra at last becomes impatient of the increasing
domination by Rome and protests or rebels. However, their gesture
is brought to order, and they are deprived of their coastland territory
(in favour of Roman colonists) by the terms of a hundred-year treaty
or truce. The city's independence is at an end, although Roman nobles
are still sent to Caisra to study the Etruscan language and literature,
and perhaps to learn Greek as well.
352
BC :
Gaius Julius Iullus : Dictator.
351 BC :
Marcus Fabius Ambustus : Dictator.
351 BC :
A truce which lasts for forty years is agreed between Rome and the
Etruscan city of Tarquinii.
350
BC :
Lucius Furius Camillus : Dictator.
349 BC :
Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus : Dictator
for the second time.
c.346 - 345 BC :
As the final act in the revolt of the Volsci, Rome sacks and levels
their town of Satricum around 346 BC. The surviving fighting men,
who number about four thousand, are sold into slavery. The Aurunci
choose this moment to send a force against Rome itself which causes
panic, with the Senate viewing the threat as a wider conspiracy
of the Latin League. Lucius Furius Camillus is selected as dictator
for the second time. He pulls together an emergency army from Rome's
citizens and ends the threat at the very first battle against the
Aurunci. The same army is then used to complete the conquest of
the Volsci at Sora.
![Roman Teanum](Opici_Teano01_full.jpg)
The
Roman city of Teanum, modern Teano, thrived during the late Roman
republic and empire periods after being founded as the main centre
of the Sidicini tribe
345 BC :
Lucius Furius Camillus : Dictator
for the second time. Defeated the Aurunci and Volsci.
344 BC :
Publius Valerius Publicola : Dictator.
343 - 341 BC :
The Samnites are continuing to expand into former Etruscan Campania
following their capture of Capua and Cuma. Their advances force
the Greek city states along the coast to request of Rome that it
reins in its ally. The Samnites also launch an apparently unprovoked
attack against the Sidicini. When the Samnites refuse to listen
to Roman 'reason', Rome triggers the First Samnite War. Roman
Consul Cornelius attacks the Samnite town of Saticula (on the border
of the modern region of Campania), but the war ends with Rome distracted
by the Latin War against its other Italic allies. At the
bargaining table, the Samnites agree to restore the former Roman-Samnite
alliance on condition that the Samnites are permitted to go to war
against the Sidicini if required. As Rome has no agreement with
the Sidicini, the terms are accepted.
342
BC :
Marcus Valerius Corvus : Dictator.
340 BC :
Lucius Papirius Crassus : Dictator.
340 - 338 BC :
The Latin War is the last major attempt by the Latins to
retain independence from Rome. As its trigger, the Samnites attack
the Sidicini who, in their desperation, offer to subjugate themselves
to Rome. They are refused on the grounds that they are too late
in seeking Rome's protection following the conclusion of the First
Samnite War. Instead, the beleaguered Sidicini ally themselves
to a Latin League force which is advancing against the Samnites.
Encouraged
by Rome's indifference to the Latin-Samnite conflict, the Latins
(and the Volsci) plan to attack Rome next. Rome hears of this and,
following failed bargaining in the Senate with ten Latin chiefs
to agree a new treaty, declares war against the Latin League. Allied
to the Samnites, Rome fights for two years to defeat the Latins
in a number of battles and subjugate them fully. The Latin League
is dissolved, and some Latin states are annexed directly to Rome,
while others retain autonomy.
![Mount Vesuvius](Vesuvius03_full.jpg)
Modern
Naples lies beneath the slumbering volcano of Vesuvius, one of a
long line of settlements there that have risked an eruption and
which have sometimes been destroyed by one
339 BC :
Quintus Publilius Philo : Non-military
dictator who carried out reforms.
337
- 335 BC :
Having signed separate treaties with Rome, the Aurunci and Sidicini
now fall out. Livy relates that the Sidicini attack the Aurunci
in 337 BC. The Ausones side with the Sidicini and, in 335 BC, Rome
sends an army under Marcus Valerius Corvus to besiege Cales, the
Ausones capital. Corvus captures the town while its defenders are
in a drunken sleep and a Roman garrison is placed there. Colonists
soon follow, and land is distributed amongst them, effectively destroying
the Ausones.
335
BC :
Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas : Dictator.
c.334 BC :
The Sidicini now bear the brunt of Rome's attentions. In a campaign
by both consular armies, the Sidicini apparently accept subjugation
without a battle, while the Romans are struck by an unexplained
plague (probably malaria, which is prevalent in the region). The
details are not mentioned at all by Livy, which is unusual if this
people have been conquered in battle.
334
- 331 BC :
At the request of the embattled Greek colony of Taras, Alexander
I Molossus embarks with a force of Epirotes, Macedonians and Tarantines
to Italy. He fights the Brutii and Lucani, and in 332 BC defeats
an alliance of Lucani and Samnites near Paestum. In the same year
he concludes a treaty with the Romans and continues battling against
the other Italic peoples. He captures Heraclea from the Lucani and
then Sipontum and Terina from the Brutii but, having been forced
to accept battle at Pandosia (in Calabria), he is killed by a Lucani
exile.
![Epirote mountains](Epirus_Mountains01_full.jpg)
The
mountainous landscape of all but coastal Epirus required a hardy
inhabitant, and the region's remoteness may have had a bearing on
its poorly recorded history in the ancient world
The
defeat is a significant one as it marks the end of any new Greek
colonisation in Italy and teaches the Italians how to defeat the
phalanx, which is completely outmanoeuvred on rocky ground by the
fast-moving Italics. The Greeks, though, are looking eastwards as
Alexander the Great of Macedonia destroys and takes over the Achaemenid
empire.
333 BC :
Publius Cornelius Rufinus : Dictator.
332 BC :
Marcus Papirius Crassus : Dictator.
331 BC :
Gnaeus Quinctius Capitolinus : Dictator.
325 BC :
Lucius Papirius Cursor : Dictator.
325 - 304 BC :
At around the same time as the former Peucetii settlement of Gravina
is taken from Greek settlers by the Samnites, the Second Samnite
War is triggered against Rome. During this period the Marsi
ally themselves to the Romans in an attempt to remove the Samnite
hold over them, while the Dauni, Iapyges, Lucani, Messapii, and
Peucetii side with the Samnites. The Oenotri and Chones also appear
to be subject to Samnite control by this time, during which the
Samnite commander, Gaius Pontius, leads a force of around 9,000,
including a thousand cavalry, with which he wins several early victories.
324 BC :
Lucius Papirius Cursor : Dictator
for the second time.
322 BC :
Aulus Cornelius Cossus Arvina : Dictator.
321 BC :
Meddix Gaius Pontius (a meddix being a Samnite consul or
magistrate) commands the Samnite forces at the Battle of the Caudine
Forks. Not actually a battle, the event (near Benevento) sees the
Romans fooled into entering a trap in a mountainous defile, where
they are cornered by the Samnites. They are forced to agree terms
so that they can return home and the terms of the agreement are
maintained until 316 BC.
![Arch of Trajan](Beneventum_TrajanArch01_full.jpg)
The
Arch of Trajan, built in AD 114 by the Senate and people of Rome,
marked the entrance of the Via Traiana into the city of Beneventum
(Benavento)
320 BC :
Gaius Maenius : Dictator.
320 BC :
Lucius Cornelius Lentulus? : Dictator.
320 BC :
The Samnite commander, Gaius Pontius, defeats the army of Dictator
Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and captures the towns of Canusium and
Gnaitha, but the Samnites suffer defeat at the hands of Quintus
Fabius Maximus Rullianus at Imbrinium.
320
BC :
Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus : Dictator
for the third time.
319 BC :
The Ferrentani (more properly known as the Forentani) are subjugated
by Rome when they reconquer Satricum. This event may instead belong
to 315 BC, when Quintus Aulius Cerretanus is master of the horse
rather than 319 BC when he is consul.
316
BC :
Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas : Dictator
for the second time.
315 BC :
Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus : Dictator.
315 BC :
Rome strikes back under Dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus
when he successfully besieges Saticula. He is less successful when
he fights the Samnites at the Battle of Lautulae, during which his
inexperienced levies are no match for seasoned Samnite warriors.
The southern reaches of Latium are captured and the second class
Roman citizens there are persuaded to abandon their allegiance to
Rome. The Samnites advance on Rome itself and, although it is successfully
defended, the Samnites storm through the weakened Roman lines of
the Liris Valley and capture Sora. The lines of communication to
Apulia are cut and the Samnites enjoy the high watermark of their
superiority.
![Samnite soldiers](Samnite_Soldiers02_full.jpg)
Roman
military tactics may have owed something to the Samnites, with this
efficient and seasoned warrior force matching the Romans and bettering
them in the fourth century BC
315 BC :
Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus : Dictator
for the second time.
314 BC :
Gaius Maenius : Dictator
for the second time.
313 BC :
Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus : Dictator.
313 BC :
Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus : Dictator
for the third time.
c.313 BC :
The Romans have been learning from Samnite fighting methods and
begin to turn the tables. Meddix Gaius Pontius is captured and executed
by Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus, probably during the latter's
third and last dictatorship.
312
BC :
Gaius Sulpicius Longus? : Dictator.
312 BC :
Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus : Possibly
a magister equitum rather than a dictator.
310 BC :
Lucius Papirius Cursor : Dictator
for the third time.
310 BC :
Etruscans allied to the Samnites fight Rome at the Battle of Sutrium
(modern Sutri). The Roman forces are commanded by the now-Consul
Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus. After winning the battle on this
key route into Etruscan territory, he pursues the Etruscans into
the ancient Ciminian Forest, which divides Latium from Etruria,
where he defeats them again. The Etruscan cities of Curtun and Perusna
fall to Rome in the same period, and the first Roman contact with
the Umbri to the north-east takes place.
![Umbria](Umbri_Countryside01_full.jpg)
The
territory that had been settled by the Umbri was focussed along
a stretch of the mountainous Apennines which form a spine down the
middle of Italy
309 BC :
Lucius Papirius Cursor : Dictator
for the fourth time.
308 BC :
The Etruscan city state of Tarchna capitulates to Rome in what can
be seen as a period of expansion and superiority for the latter
city.
306
BC :
Publius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus : Dictator.
304 BC :
The Samnites are defeated by Rome, ending the Second Samnite
War. Their confederates, the Frentani, Marsi, Marrucini, and
Paeligni, voluntarily accept their reintegration into Roman administrative
rule. All the other Samnite allies are also subjugated by Rome.
302
BC :
Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus : Dictator
for the second time.
302 BC :
Marcus Valerius Corvus : Dictator
for the second time.
301 BC :
Marcus Valerius Corvus : Dictator
for the third time.
301 BC :
The Etruscan city of Arret- has been suffering civil turmoil in
this century, possibly a result of Roman pressure on Etruscan lives
and freedoms. In this year the plebeians revolt against the important
and powerful Cilnii family. A Roman army under Marcus Valerius Maximus
arrives to help to restore order, and within twenty years or so,
the city submits entirely to Rome.
![Etruscan villa near Vetulonia](Etruscan_Villa_Vetulonia01_full.jpg)
This
Etruscan villa was excavated at the town of Vetluna (near modern
Grosseto in Tuscany), and seems to have belonged to a wealthy family
at a time of peace with Rome, in the third century BC
299 BC :
Latin colonies are founded in Umbrian territory by Rome in the next
half a century, starting in 299 BC with the conquest of the city
of Nequinum, which Rome renames Narni. Rome also concludes a treaty
with the Picentes, or what Livy later terms the Picentine people.
298
BC :
General Scipio defeats the forces of the Etruscan city of Velathri,
and the city itself is severely damaged in the process. It now becomes
a Roman possession and later provides military aid and supplies
to Rome during the Second Punic War.
The
Picentes warn the Roman senate that they have been approached by
the Samnites, who are seeking allies in advance of a renewal of
hostilities against Rome. The Third Samnite War begins with
Consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus immediately defeating the
Samnites at Tifernum after managing to encircle their forces.
297
- 295 BC :
The Samnites march into Etruria in 297 BC to rouse the Etruscans
and form a coalition against Rome. The combined armies of consuls
Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens and Appius Claudius Caecus (dictator
in 292 BC) defeat this force and the Samnites withdraw back into
their own territory. In 295 BC, Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus,
Roman consul for a fifth time, wins lasting fame after he defeats
a fresh coalition of Gauls and Samnites at the Battle of Sentinum
(near the modern town of Sassoferrato).
294 BC :
Lucius Postumius Megellus defeats the Etruscans of Volsinies. The
city of Rosella, close to Vetluna, is occupied by Rome, much to
Vetluna's detriment, and the latter city begins to decline. The
irrigation systems begin to decay, the drainage systems silt up,
and the area slowly reverts to malaria-infested swamp. The Romans
attempt to establish a garrison nearby, at Graviscae, but fever
kills off its inhabitants.
![Etruscan sarcophagus](Etruscan_Tomb01_full.jpg)
An
Etruscan sarcophagus of a man and his wife from the city of Caisra
(modern Cerveteri), which was one of the older cities, having been
formed in the late ninth century BC by a melding together of clusters
of Villanovan villages
293 - 290 BC :
The Samnites are defeated by Rome at the Battle of Aquilona in 293
BC. The nearby capital of the Samnite confederation, Aquilona (in
modern Campania), is destroyed. The former Pentri capital of Bovianum
resumes the role, although the Samnites are gradually broken, accepting
final defeat in 290 BC.
292
- 285 BC :
Appius Claudius Caecus : Dictator.
Victor against the Samnites in 297 BC.
291 - 285 BC :
Marcus Aemilius Barbula : Dictator.
291 - 285 BC :
Publius Cornelius Rufinus? : Dictator.
291 BC :
The Etruscan city state of Clevsin falls to Rome during its seemingly
relentless advance into Etruscan lands.
287
BC :
Quintus Hortensius : Dictator.
283 BC :
The Picentes make another appearance in the historical record, in
relation to successful Roman conquests in the far northern reaches
of Picene territory. The Ager Gallicus on the north-east coast of
Italy has been populated by different ethnic groups for quite some
time. These are mainly Picentes and Etruscans, but with a strong
admixture of more recently arrived Gauls. Ancona had been built
by the Greeks of Sicily, but to the north of this the Gauls dominate.
Rome has been winning a series of victories against these Gauls,
and in this year it expels the tribe of the Senones from the coastal
region. Rome annexes this strip as far south as Ancona, and the
area is renamed Gallia Togata.
282
- 278 BC :
The growing power of Rome has defeated the Boii in the north and
saved the Greek colony of Thurii from being overwhelmed by the Italics,
but the colony of Tarentum intervenes, sinking some of the Roman
ships. Rome declares war on Tarentum, but Pyrrhus of Epirus declares
for Tarentum, as do many of the southern Italic peoples, including
the Brutii, Lucani, and Samnites. A few years later these three
Italic tribes send auxiliaries to the army of Pyrrhus, while Rome
has its own loyal Frentani auxiliaries (or, more probably, the subject
Ferrentani of Campania). Following the withdrawal of Pyrrhus in
278 BC to conquer Syracuse, the Italics face Rome's might alone.
280
BC :
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus : Dictator.
280 BC :
In what is becoming a predictable feature of this period of Rome's
history, the Etruscan city state of Vulci falls to it.
278
- 272 BC :
In six years of further campaigning in southern Italy, Generals
Gaius Fabricius Luscinus and Lucius Papirius inflict defeat after
defeat on the Italic tribes that had supported Pyrrhus until they
are subdued (by 272 BC). They are forced to concede half of the
forest of Sila, which is a valuable source of timber, in exchange
for peace.
![Numerius and the Samnites at Bovianum](Samnite_Numerius01_full.jpg)
Numerius
prepares his Samnites to face Rome at the Battle of Bovianum in
272 BC, close to the Pentri capital of the same name
277 - 275 BC :
Pyrrhus of Epirus conquers Syracuse in 277 BC, and holds it for
two years, with support being given by the Messapii. His hard but
costly fighting against Rome on the island brings his southern Balkans
kingdom a brief sense of importance. It is also his costly victories
which inspire the term 'pyrrhic victory', as a victory with such
high loses is no real victory at all.
273
BC :
In a development that seems to have taken quite some time since
their first conquests, the Romans now found their first colony in
Etruscan territory.
268/267
BC :
The Picentes appear to rebel against Roman domination. They are
defeated by two consular armies in Gallia Togata and Rome gains
the region around Arimnus (Rimini), on the border region between
the Picentes and the Etruscans. This former Etruscan city is captured
by Publius Sempronius Sophus. He returns to Rome and is given a
triumph for his victory over the Picentes.
267/266
BC :
Perhaps spurred on by the recent Messapii support of Epirus, Rome
attacks and conquers the Messapii and the former Greek settlement
of Brandusium (modern Brindisi).
265
- 264 BC :
Velzna, the last independent Etruscan city, is suffering civil strife,
so the Romans are called upon by the city's aristocrats to help
calm the situation in their favour. Roman troops take a very heavy-handed
approach, plundering around two thousand bronzes from all over the
city. Their loot is often melted down to provide bronze coin for
the war chest. The following year, the city is razed to the ground
by the Romans, and the fortunate survivors are forced to resettle,
leaving the city's ruins abandoned (it is likely that the modern
city of Orvieto has been built directly over those ruins). The Romans
interpret the city's name as Volsinii, and the resettled populace
now occupy a fresh site which is named Volsinii Novae (modern Bolsena).
![Ruins of Carthage](Carthage_Ruins01_full.jpg)
The
city of Carthage existed in its original glory for at least four
hundred and twenty-eight years before it was destroyed by the Romans
- and possibly another two centuries before that as a developing
colony which was founded by Phoenicians
264 - 241 BC :
The First Punic War erupts between Rome and Carthage. It
starts in Sicily and develops into a naval war in which the Romans
learn how to fight at sea and eventually gain overall victory. Before
that, however, they are dealt a humiliating defeat in 249 BC at
the port of Drepana. Following the war's conclusion, Carthage loses
Sardinia and the western section of Sicily.
263
BC :
Gnaeus Fulvius Maximus Centumalus : Dictator.
257 BC :
Quintus Ogulnius Gallus : Dictator.
253 BC :
Seemingly contradicting the claim that Velzna had been the last
independent Etruscan city in 265 BC, the Etruscan city state of
Caisra is now subjugated by Rome.
249 BC :
Marcus Claudius Glicia : Dictator.
249 BC :
Aulus Atilius Caiatinus : Dictator,
following the disaster of Drepana in 249 BC.
246 BC :
Tiberius Coruncanius : Dictator.
231 BC :
Gaius Duilius : Dictator.
231 - 225 BC :
The two most extensive Gallic tribes of northern Italy, the Boii
and Insubres, send out the call for assistance against Rome to the
tribes living around the Alps and on the Rhone. Rather than each
of the tribes sending their own warriors, it appears that individual
warriors are effectively hired from the entire Alpine region as
mercenaries. Polybius calls them Gaesatae, describing it as a word
which means 'serving for hire'.
![Celtic warriors](Celts_Warriors02_full.jpg)
While
most of the Gauls of the third century BC fought fully clothed,
their Gaesatae mercenaries tended to fight with nothing more than
their weapons, and not even the trousers shown here
The
Gaesatae are offered a large sum of gold on the spot and the wealth
of Rome is also pointed out - wealth that can be theirs if they
stick to their task. Rome has been informed of what is coming, and
hurries to assemble the legions. Even its ongoing conflicts with
the Carthaginians take second place, and a treaty is hurriedly agreed
with Hasdrubaal, commander in Iberia, which virtually confirms Carthaginian
rule there. Another Roman force is in Illyria in 229 BC, fighting
the Ardiaei, but that also returns by 228 BC, perhaps for this reason.
Such is Rome's haste that they approach the Gaulish frontier before
the Gauls have even stirred.
It is 225 BC when the Gaesatae forces cross the Alps and enter the
valley of the Padus with a formidable army. Defending Rome and its
territories are the Ferrentani, Iapygians, Latins, Lucanians, Marrucini,
Marsi, Messapians, Samnites, and Vestini, plus two more legions
on Sicily and in Tarentum. The first battle witnesses Roman forces
being decimated and routed by superior Gaulish tactics. Two fresh
Roman armies arrive and the Gauls are caught between them. The battle
is fierce, and large numbers of Gauls are cut down or taken prisoner.
224 BC :
Lucius Caecilius Metellus : Dictator.
224 - 222 BC :
Rome continues the Gallic War against the Gauls of northern
Italy, but in far less spectacular fashion than in 225 BC. With
many of the tribes already pacified, only the Boii and Insubres
remain to offer any real resistance, and this is quickly put down.
In 222 BC, the Insubres are left with no option but to surrender,
their unnamed chief making a complete submission to Rome. This act
effectively ends the Gallic War in northern Italy, as Rome now dominates
all of the tribes there.
![Bohemia](Bohemia_Valley01_full.jpg)
The
landscape of Bohemia (main homeland of the Boii) is and was defined
by wooded mountainsides and extensive farming land - a green and
fertile area at the centre of Europe
221 - 219 BC :
Q Fabius Maximus Verrucosus : Dictator.
218 - 202 BC :
The Second Punic War is fought against Carthage. Rome is
aided by its Etruscan, Frentani, Picene, and Umbrian forces, but
Italy is invaded by Hannibal Barca after the general forces his
way through the Alps, fighting off the attentions of the Celtic
Allobroges tribe and some Ligurian tribes along the way.
217
BC :
Q Fabius Maximus Verrucosus : Dictator.
Nicknamed Cunctator (the Delayer) for his tactics.
217 BC :
Marcus Minucius Rufus : Dictator.
216 BC :
Marcus Junius Pera : Dictator.
216 BC :
Marcus Fabius Buteo : Dictator.
216 - 209 BC :
As part of the Second Punic War, a Roman army is massacred
at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, killing 60,000. The Hirpini now
declare for Carthage. The final stages of the war in Italy are fought
out in the south-east.
213
BC :
Gaius Claudius Centho : Dictator.
210 BC :
Quintus Fulvius Flaccus : Dictator.
209 - 202 BC :
When the Carthaginians finally withdraw in 209 BC, Rome is able
to capture the ports of Brundisium (modern Brindisi) and Tarentum
(modern Taranto). This establishes full Roman dominion over the
south-east of Italy and the tribes of the Dauni, Hirpini, Iapyges,
Lucani, Messapii, and Peucetii. Rome also finds time to conquer
the Greek colony of Syracuse and fight the First Macedonian War
in an attempt to tie down possible Macedonian reinforcements for
Carthage.
![Dauni pottery](Dauni_Pottery01_full.jpg)
Early
Dauni pottery developed a style that was mostly its own, generally
using geometric shapes, although the example shown here is a plain
one, albeit still simplistically attractive
208 BC :
Titus Manlius Torquatus : Dictator.
207 BC :
Marcus Livius Salinator : Dictator.
205 BC :
Quintus Caecilius Metellus : Dictator.
203 BC :
Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus : Dictator.
202 BC :
Gaius Servilius Geminus : Dictator.
Last of the irregular holders of this office.
202 BC :
At the end of the Second Punic War the post of dictator is
outlawed. It is replaced by powers for the two consuls which allows
them to take any action to defend the republic.
200
- 196 BC :
Rome fights the Second Macedonian War, thanks to claims made
by Pergamon and Rhodes of a treaty between Macedonia and the Seleucid
empire that is designed to carve up Egypt's possessions. The republic
launches an attack and, after a spell of indecisive conflict, Philip
of Macedonia is defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC,
while his general, Androsthenes, is defeated near Corinth. The Macedonian
army is drastically reduced in size as a result of the defeat, and
Philip's standing as an important Greek king is greatly diminished.
![Ecbatana](Ecbatana_City01_full.jpg)
Ecbatana
was the capital of Media, a prized possession of the Seleucid empire
and one that had to be regained upon the event of a revolt - this
view shows the surviving ancient walls in modern Hamadan in Iran
200 BC :
As Rome tightens its grip over central Italy, the Etruscan city
of Caisra is drawn directly under its control.
190
- 188 BC :
Rome defeats the Seleucids in the Seleucid War, taking Asia
Minor as a province in 188 BC. The Seleucid ally, Cappadocia, negotiates
friendly terms with Rome, notably because Stratonice, the king's
daughter, is about to marry the king of Pergamon, a Roman ally.
Pergamon also annexes Lydia and Pamphylia around this point in time.
The
newly appointed commander of Roman forces in Asia Minor is Gnaeus
Manlius Vulso. He ensures that the entire region knows about Rome's
arrival by looting, robbing and extorting plunder from the local
population, and destroying those who resist (so says Livy). Even
worse, he views the Galatian Celts as a mongrel race and is determined
to exterminate them, despite receiving no such instructions from
Rome. He exhibits an extreme degree of the general Roman dislike
of Celts due to their sack of Rome under Brennus of the Senones
in 387 BC.
172
- 168 BC :
Perseus of Macedonia and Rome renew fighting in the Third Macedonian
War. Epirus is split, with the Chaonians and Thesprotians siding
with Rome and the Molossians allying themselves to Macedonia. The
result is a disaster for Epirus, with the Chaonians being annexed
by Rome in 170 BC.
168
- 150 BC :
Roman rule of Macedonia and Thrace follows the defeat of Perseus.
The Antigonids are removed from power and the kingdom is dismantled
and replaced by four republics. In 150 BC, Andriscus of Macedon
breaks the Roman hold over the former kingdom when he leads a popular
uprising in the Fourth Macedonian War.
![Roman forum in Stobi](Macedonia_StobiRomans01_full.jpg)
The
Roman Forum at modern Stobi is now in North Macedonia (known for
some time as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM))
159 BC :
Rome conquers the Greek kingdom of Epirus, with thousands of its
inhabitants being enslaved and the region being plundered so thoroughly
that it takes centuries to recover. Epirus remains within the later
Roman empire and its subsequent eastern division for the next seven
hundred and fifty years or so.
149
- 148 BC :
Andriscus invades Macedonia from Thrace in 149 BC and defeats the
Roman praetor, Publius Juventius. Then he proclaims himself King
Philip VI of Macedonia. In the following year, his popular uprising
is put down by the legions at the Second Battle of Pydna, and they
establish a permanent residence in Greece. The Achaean League of
Greek states rises up against this presence and is swiftly destroyed.
Rome also destroys Corinth as an object lesson and annexes Greece
and Macedonia.
149
- 146 BC :
Carthage has recovered from its defeat in 202 BC and refuses a change
in terms by Rome, and the Third Punic War is the result.
After a siege which conquers Carthage, Rome takes brutal action
to obliterate the city and its people.
146 BC :
The Achaean League is dissolved by Rome and the four client republics
of the north are dissolved. Macedonia officially becomes the Roman
province of Macedonia, which also includes Epirus, Thessaly, and
areas of Illyria, Paeonia, and Thrace.
![Roman silver dinarius](Rome_Coins01_full.jpg)
Pictured
here are both sides of a Roman silver dinarius from the official
mint, dated to around 146 BC - the mounted attacker on the reverse
accompanied by his dog is fairly typical as Roman troops would often
bring their mastiffs along with them so that, while the soldier
was fighting the enemy above with spear and long knife, their dogs
would be biting the enemy's legs from below
133 - 129 BC :
Rome is bequeathed the Anatolian kingdom of Pergamon, but has to
send two armies in 131 BC and 129 BC to secure the claim. The first
is defeated and its commander, Proconsul Publius Licinius Crassus
Dives Mucianus, is killed along with his ally, King Ariarathes V
of Cappadocia.
123
- 121 BC :
The Allobroges come into direct conflict with Rome following the
latter's defeat of the Salluvii. That tribe's king, Tuto-Motulus,
flees northwards and seeks shelter with the Allobroges. They welcome
him in and, when Rome demands that he is handed over, they refuse.
Having declared war, Rome sends Quintus Fabius Maximus to attack
them in 121 BC. He is the son of Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus,
consul of 145 BC, and is consul himself during this year.
He
campaigns in Gallia Transalpina (the modern Auvergne and Rhône-Alpes
regions) with Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, fighting the Allobroges,
Arverni, and Helvii. They are defeated and the consul is awarded
the honour of a triumph which is famous for its spectacle, with
the Arverni ruler, Bituitus, being displayed in his silver battle
armour. The Ruteni, Segovellauni, Vocontii, and Volcae Arecomisci
are subjugated at the same time.
107
- 101 BC :
The Cimbrian War is ignited when the Germanic Teutones and
Cimbri migrate into northern Italy. Initially the invaders are successful
against tribes which are allied to Rome. Consul Lucius Cassius Longinus
enters Gallia Narbonensis to oppose the Cimbri in 107 BC, but he
is killed at the Battle of Burdigala (modern day Bordeaux, the chief
town of the Biturices Vivisci) by the Helvetii, along with his lieutenant,
Lucius Piso (grandfather of Lucius Calpurnius Piso, father-in-law
to Julius Caesar). The Roman force under Cassius is routed and made
to 'pass under the yoke' by the Helvetii after surrendering most
of its supplies.
![The Teutones wandering in Gaul](Denmark_Teutons01_full.jpg)
An
illustration depicting the Teutones wandering in Gaul, part of a
large-scale migration from modern Denmark into northern Italy in
the second century BC
In
105 BC a huge Roman army is destroyed at the Battle of Arausio.
Consul Gaius Marius rebuilds the Roman forces and, while the Cimbri
raid Iberia, in 102 BC the weakened Teutones are defeated and enslaved.
The Cimbrians are similarly destroyed at the Battle of Vercellae
in 101 BC.
96 - 75 BC :
Cyrene becomes part of the republic in 96 BC, and in 75 BC is made
a province of Rome. Also in 96 BC (and not 92 BC as is sometimes
stated), Rome and Parthia meet on the Euphrates. The Parthian ambassador,
Orobazos, offers Sulla, the propraetor of the province of
Cilicia, the 'friendship' and 'alliance' of his master. Although
the exact outcome of this meeting is unclear, Parthia's agreements
with China and Rome serve to prove its rise as a world power.
95
- 89 BC :
Rome secures the independence of Cappadocia in the face of attempted
control by Pontus. Successful challenges to Rome's growing mastery
of Anatolia are becoming increasingly rare.
91
- 89 BC :
The Etruscans, Frentani, Hirpini, Iapyges, Lucani, Marrucini, Marsi,
Paeligni, Picentes, Samnites, Umbri, and Vestini fight against Rome
in the Social War (also variously known as the Italian
War, or Marsic War). The Latins and Umbri play only a
minor role in the war, joining the rebels late and agreeing terms
with Rome early on. The Picentes side with Rome during the war and
Picenum serves as a base for Roman troops. The war is the result
of increasing inequality in Roman land ownership, and the spark
for conflict is delivered by the assassination of the reforming
Marcus Livius Drusus. The Alpine Euganei are conquered at the same
time as the war ends in 89 BC.
89
- 82 BC :
Civil war explodes in Italy between the supporters and forces of
Sulla and Gaius Marius. The latter is supported by the Etruscans.
Athens takes the opportunity to rebel against Roman control and
Sulla is forced to crush the rebelling Greeks. He also conducts
an ethnic cleansing campaign against the Samnites, Rome's most stubborn
and persistent adversaries, forcing the remnant to disperse. The
Italians are granted Roman citizenship and Sulla recaptures Rome
in 82 BC to end the war. A new form of dictatorship is created in
which there is no time limit for the office.
82
- 79 BC :
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix : Dictator.
Resigned when Senate regained control of Rome.
80 BC :
Sulla devastates the Etruscan cities; the Etruscans become Roman
citizens but, as a result of their support of Gaius Marius, their
language and customs are suppressed.
![Lucius Cornelius Sulla](Rome_Sulla01_full.jpg)
Lucius
Cornelius Sulla was the victor in Rome's first full-scale civil
war (88-82 BC), after which he became dictator of the Roman republic,
thereby laying out a path that others could follow in the same century
80 - 72 BC :
The Sertorian War in Hispania causes the Celts of Mediterranean
Gaul to be subjected to troop levies and forced requisitions in
order to support the military efforts of Metellus Pius, Pompeius,
and other Roman commanders against the rebels. However, some Celtic
polities, including, remarkably, the Helvii, support Sertorius and
they pay the price for their support after his assassination. The
Helvii and Volcae Arecomisci are forced to cede a portion of their
territory to the Greek city state of Messalina. Caesar mentions
this land forfeiture but does not provide any details of the Helvii
actions against Rome.
73
- 71 BC :
A slave named Spartacus, a former chieftain of the Maedi tribe of
Thracians, leads a slave revolt in southern Italy. Aided by the
Celts, Castus, Crixus, Gannicus, and Oenomaus, his numbers are swelled
by more and more slaves joining his forces in what is known as the
Third Servile War. Ultimately he is defeated by Crassus in
battles at Brundisium, Lucania, and Silarus. Over six thousand slaves
are crucified along the Via Appia (providing a memorable late scene
in the 1960 film version of these events - Spartacus). Pompey
gains the final victory over the remaining slave force and the credit
in Rome, while Crassus is almost forgotten.
68
- 63 BC :
Phoenicia becomes a Roman possession in 68 BC, while in 64 BC Lycia
follows suit. In the following year, the Seleucids fall to Rome,
and Syria and areas of the Levant become Roman provinces.
65
BC :
The Allobroges revolt under the leadership of Catugnatus, and the
Segovellauni may also be involved. The revolt is defeated in short
order by Gaius Pomptinus at the Solonium and it results in a good
deal of the tribe's accumulated wealth being paid to Rome. Senator
Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) invites the Allobroges to join
his conspiracy. Instead, they decline the offer and expose it. This
earns Rome's gratitude and the Allobroges remain allies thereafter.
![Western Alps](Modern_Alps01_full.jpg)
The
Celtic tribes of the Western Alps were relatively small and fairly
fragmented, but they made up for that with a level of belligerence
and fighting ability that often stunned their major opponents, including
the Romans
64 - 62 BC :
Pompey conquers Syria, including Ammon, making Syria a Roman province
in 63 BC. The following year, Pompey's general, Scaurus, devastates
the area around Petra but is unable to capture the city, partially
because he has run out of supplies. The Nabataeans apparently buy
their freedom by paying tribute so that, just as they had managed
to avoid assimilation into the Seleucid empire, now they are keeping
Rome at arm's length.
62
- 61 BC :
In response to Rome's incursions into the Danube delta, which are
seen as a major threat by all the peoples of the region, King Burebista
of the Getae has united all of the Getae into a single kingdom.
He has also established overlordship of the neighbouring Bastarnae
and Sarmatians. Burebista's powerful forces raid regularly into
Roman-held territory. In 62 BC the Greek cities rebel against Roman
rule, and in the following year the Bastarnae managed to isolate
the Roman infantry of the inept proconsul of Macedonia, Gaius Antonius
(uncle to Marc Antony). The entire force is massacred. The Roman
hold over the region collapses.
60
- 53 BC :
Caesar, Pompey, & Crassus : Members
of the first triumvirate.
60 - 58 BC :
The Helvetii begin an invasion of the lowlands of Gaul, and Julius
Caesar recruits two new legions to face the threat. The two sides
soon face each other at the Battle of Bibracte in 58 BC, and the
Helvetii are mercilessly crushed by six Roman legions. Their shattered
remnants are forced back to their homeland but deeper problems result
from the campaign. Its mixed outcome, despite victory in battle,
triggers Julius Caesar's campaigns in Gaul from this point onwards,
which result in the eventual annexation of the entire land into
the Roman state.
58 BC :
The Gallic Wars of Julius Caesar begin when he becomes governor
of Gaul. Over the course of the next decade or so he conquers all
of the Gaulish tribes. His efforts begin with a showdown against
Ariovistus of the Suevi at the Battle of Vosges. Superior Roman
tactics breaks that line and the Suevi host makes a run for the
Rhine.
57
BC :
The Belgae enter into a confederacy against the Romans in fear of
Rome's eventual domination over them. They are also spurred on by
Gauls who are unwilling to see Germanic tribes remaining on Gaulish
territory and are unhappy about Roman troops wintering in Gaul.
Caesar marches ahead of expectations and the Remi, on the Belgic
border, instantly surrender, although their brethren, the Suessiones
remain enthusiastic about the venture. Rather than face such a large
force with a reputation for uncommon bravery, Caesar elects to isolate
them in groups using his cavalry.
![Battle of the Axona](Belgae_Axona01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of the (River) Axona (the modern Aisne in north-eastern France)
witnessed the beginning of the end of the Belgic confederation against
Rome
The
next day, Caesar leads his army into the territories of the Suessiones,
to capture the town of Noviodunum. With this victory, the Suessiones
surrender and Caesar marches on the surviving Bellovaci, who are
soon subdued when their leaders in the confederacy against Rome
flee to Britain. With this action, northern Gaul has been brought
under Roman domination, while the victorious legions winter amongst
the Andes, Carnutes, and Turones.
56 BC :
Following his successful campaign against the Belgae in the previous
year, Caesar heads for Italy. He sends Servius Galba ahead with
the Twelfth Legion and part of the cavalry to secure the way. The
pass through the Alps has been dominated by the Nantuates, Seduni,
and Veragri tribes, making the route a dangerous one for Roman merchants,
and now is the time to end that danger.
With Gaul now apparently at peace, Caesar sets out for Illyricum.
Once he has left, war flares up again, triggered by Publius Licinius
Crassus and the Seventh Legion in the territory of the Andes thanks
to their excessive scavanging activities. Julius Caesar rushes back
to northern Gaul, to a fleet that is being prepared for him by the
(Roman-led) Pictones and Santones on the River Loire. The subsequent
campaign by Caesar against, principally, the Veneti is protracted
and takes place both on land and sea, but Roman rule is firmly stamped
upon the region.
Entering Aquitania after subduing the Petrocorii along the way,
Crassus recruits auxiliaries from the Gaulish regions of Tolosa,
Carcaso, and Narbo (which includes the tribes of the Bebryces, Sordones,
and Volcae) before entering the territory of the Sotiates. The Romans
are only just victorious here, but then tackle the Vocates and Tarusates
in another close-run battle. When news of this defeat spreads, the
majority of the tribes of Aquitania surrender to Crassus.
![River Vézère](Modern_RiverVezere01_full.jpg)
The
River Vézère in France probably formed one of the territorial borders
of the Petrocorii tribe following their arrival in the region
Now
only the Morini and Menapii remain in opposition to Rome, never
having sent their ambassadors to agree peace terms. Caesar leads
his army to their territory but they withdraw into the forests and
marshes, having realised that head-on conflict will be fruitless.
However, guerrilla warfare simply results in the Romans decimating
the countryside and burning the villages, and the invaders return
to winter quarters amongst the Aulerci and Lexovii and other recently
conquered tribes, having seen off the latest threat.
55 BC :
As recorded by Julius Caesar in his work, Commentarii de Bello
Gallico, the Germanic Tencteri and Usipetes tribes are driven
out of their tribal lands in Germania by the militarily dominant
Suevi. Their wanderings bring them to the territory of the Belgic
Menapii whom they attack. Caesar, alarmed at this threat to the
north of territory in Gaul that he has already conquered, takes
a force into the region. He attacks the Germanic tribes and drives
them back into Germania.
Several
other tribes submit to Caesar, but the Sicambri withdraw from their
territories. Caesar burns their villages and takes their corn before
returning to Gaul. Soon afterwards, he mounts his first expedition
to Britain, seemingly determined to go ahead with this 'reconnaissance'
despite the lateness of the year.
![Ruins at Satala](Satala_Ruins01_full.jpg)
The
coast around the Black Sea was claimed as the original homeland
of the Sicambri Franks by later, medieval authors, further obscuring
an already legendary origin in Scandinavia
54 BC :
Julius Caesar starts the year by visiting Illyricum to put down
incursions by the Pirustae. He raises a local force that readies
itself to repel the invaders, forcing the Pirustae to negotiate
a peace. From there, he returns to Gaul and assembles a fleet at
Port Itius, intent on a second expedition to Britain.
The
recent assassination of Tasgetius of the Carnutes raises the fear
that the tribe will revolt. Lucius Plancus takes a legion to winter
amongst them, but his investigations into the murder are interrupted.
Although the situation is calmed by a swift battlefield victory,
Cavarinus of the Senones is condemned to death by his people and
is forced to flee to the Romans for protection. This serves as a
commitment by the tribe to oppose Julius Caesar during his Gallic
campaigns. The act seems to rally support from amongst most of the
Gauls, except the Aeduii and Remi who remain loyal to Rome. No further
action is taken against the Romans in this year.
53
BC :
Having left a strong guard with the Treveri following the conclusion
of their revolt, Caesar again crosses the Rhine to deal with their
German supporters. Then he enters the country of the Eburones, forcing
the rebellious Ambiorix to flee, while his co-ruler, Cativolcus,
commits suicide by poisoning. Despite this apparent capitulation,
the country of the Eburones proves difficult for the Romans, so
Caesar burns every village and building, drives off all the cattle,
and confiscates all of the tribe's grain. Once the situation has
calmed, Caesar is able to settle his men into winter quarters.
![Romans versus Gauls](Celts_Vercingetorix01_full.jpg)
Organising
the various tribes of Gaul into a unified resistance took some doing,
but Vercingetorix of the Arverni appears to have held a level of
authority that made him a leader not to be refused, and thousands
of warriors flocked to join him
However,
greater events are afoot. On 13 February 53 BC the disaffected Carnutes
had massacred every Roman merchant who had been present in the town
of Cenabum, as well as killing one of Caesar's commissariat officers.
This is the spark that ignites a massed Gaulish rebellion. While
Julius Caesar has been occupied in the lands of the Belgae, Vercingetorix
has renewed the Arverni subjugation of the Aeduii. He has also restored
the reputation of Arverni greatness by leading the revolt that is
building against Rome.
In the same year, Rome suffers one of the worst defeats in its history
when Triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus leads an army to annihilation
against the Parthians at Carrhae ( Harran). He dies shortly afterwards.
Subsequent legend says that a small band of Roman prisoners wander
through the desert and are eventually rounded up by the Han military
seventeen years later (36 BC).
52 BC :
While Caesar is tied down in Rome, the Gauls begin their revolt,
resolving to die in freedom rather than be suppressed by the invaders.
A scorched earth policy is adopted, and more than twenty towns of
the Bituriges are burned in one day. However, Caesar secures all
the supplies he needs when he besieges and storms the Bituriges
capital at Avaricum, despite a formidable Gaulish defence. From
there, the two sides gravitate towards an eventual confrontation
at Gergovia, a town of the recently resettled Boii. Caesar loses
the siege there after having to split his forces to face an unexpected
Gaulish threat from his rear, a rare defeat for him in Gaul.
![The site of Alesia](Celts_Alesia01_full.jpg)
The
site of Alesia, a major fort belonging to the Mandubii tribe of
Celts, was the scene of the final desperate stand-off between Rome
and the Gauls in 52 BC
Vercingetorix
withdraws in good order to Alesia, a major fort belonging to the
Mandubii which Caesar soon beseiges. Four relief forces are assembled
in the territory of the Aeduii by the council of the Gaulish nobility.
Together they attempt to relieve Vercingetorix, but the combined
relief force is soundly repulsed by Julius Caesar's remarkable strategy
of simultaneously conducting a siege on one front whilst being besieged
on the other. Marcus Antonius (Marc Antony) and Caius Trebonius
marshal the troops for the rearward defence. Seeing that all is
lost, Vercingetorix surrenders to Caesar. The garrison is taken
prisoner, as are the survivors from the relief army. Vercingetorix
is imprisoned in the Tullianum in Rome for five years and Gaul falls
to the republic.
49 - 46 BC :
In the same year that the peoples of Gallia Transalpina are granted
Roman citizenship (including the Cenomani tribe), civil war erupts
between Julius Caesar and Pompey as the former crosses the Rubicon.
Rome's various allies and subject peoples take sides, including
the Getae who side with Pompey. Defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus
in 48 BC, Pompey flees to Cleopatra VII, daughter of his late ally
in Egypt. Ptolemy XIII has him executed.
Again
in the same year, Pharnaces of Pontus takes the opportunity to occupy
additional territory in Anatolia, and also the first conflict takes
place between Rome and the Garamantes when the latter join the Numidian
king, Juba I. Juba's army defeats the Roman commander Curio in 49
BC, but a retaliatory strike by Caesar in 46 BC defeats the Garamantes
in turn.
![Vercingetorix and Caesar in 52 BC](Celts_Vercingetorix02_full.jpg)
Having
surrendered with honour to Caesar in 52 BC, Vercingetorix remained
a potent symbol of resistance to Roman domination, so his murder
in 46 BC dealt a terminal blow to hopes of renewed Gaulish freedom
Caesar
also wins the civil war at the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC, and is
appointed dictator of Rome for ten years. The surviving Pompeians,
including Cato the Younger, flee to Utica. One of Caesar's first
projects is the building of Colonia Junonia on the site of ancient
Carthage. By about 40 BC it becomes the capital of the Roman province
of Africa Proconsularis. In 46 BC he also refounds the city of Corinth
and murders Vercingetorix, former high king of the Gauls.
49 - 44 BC :
Gaius Julius Caesar : Dictator.
Assassinated.
45 BC :
Caesar is appointed dictator of Rome for life, much to the consternation
of many members of the Senate who see his increasing authority as
a bid for kingship of Rome, something that most Romans would abhor.
44
BC :
Julius Caesar is assassinated on the Ides of March in a conspiracy
led by Cassius and Brutus. Afterwards, Caesar's consular colleague,
Marc Antony, passes a 'lex Antonia' which abolishes the dictatorate
and expunges it from the constitutions of the republic. When Caesar's
great-nephew and adopted son, Octavian, returns to Rome, the two
rivals share an uneasy peace as they jostle for political superiority
and influence.
43
BC :
Many senators are opposed to Marc Antony's hold on power. Octavian
is granted the status of senator, despite not yet being twenty.
Cicero leads the Senate to dispatch Octavian to attack Marc Anthony
in northern Italy, and the young general wins victory at Mutina.
The two reigning consuls are among the casualties, so Octavian subsequently
marches on Rome and forces the Senate to accept him as consul. Three
months after that, he meets Antony and General Marcus Lepidus at
Bologna and on 27 November they come to a power-sharing agreement
known as the Triumvirate (Lepidus is definitely the lesser of the
three in terms of power, and is soon brushed aside). This completely
cuts off the Senate from power, hastening the transition from republic
to empire.
43
- 31 BC :
Octavian, Antony, & Lepidus : Members
of the second triumvirate.
42 BC :
During his reign, Raskouporis of Sapes has already granted assistance
both to Pompey and Caesar during their struggle for power. Now,
immediately after the murder of Julius Caesar, he supports Brutus
and Cassius against Marc Antony and Octavian. In return, Brutus
and Cassius lead campaigns against the tribal Bessoi in the Thracian
highlands in defence of their allies.
![Gradishte fortress](Thrace_Gela01_full.jpg)
The
fortress at Gradishte was Thracian, seemingly lying at the heart
of the Bessoi territory in Rhodopi Mountains and the northern foothill
mountain plain on the upper and middle streams of the River Maritsa
32 - 31 BC :
The agreement regulating the Triumvirate has expired, and in the
political manoeuvring that follows Octavian gains and reads out
Antony's will in public. It shows that his heart belongs to Cleopatra
and Egypt, thereby making it clear to most Romans that Antony could
never be one of them. The Senate declares war, and Octavian and
Antony clash on 2 September 31 BC at the naval Battle of Actium,
off the western coast of Greece. Antony is defeated as Cleopatra
departs with the surviving fleet and he commits suicide. Octavian's
next act is to put to death Cleopatra's son Caesarion.
31
- 27 BC :
Gaius Octavius / Octavian Caesar : In
sole control of Rome.
31 - 30 BC :
With Octavian's defeat of Antony at Actium and no other opponents
to his hold on power, Egypt and Libya become provinces of Rome upon
the death of Cleopatra in the following year. Octavian also recognises
the authority of the turncoat Polemon I of the Bosporan kingdom,
Cilicia, Kolkis, and Pontus.
27 BC :
The office of dictator is offered to Caesar Augustus (Octavian),
who wisely declines it. He opts instead for the power of a tribune
and consular imperium without holding any office other than that
of Pontifex Maximus and Princeps Senatus - a politic arrangement
which leaves him as functional dictator without having to hold the
controversial title or office itself. The Roman Empire is born.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsEurope/
ItalyRomeRepublic.htm
#Republic