HAMMURABI
Hammurabi
(standing) receiving his royal insignia from Shamash (or possibly
Marduk)
King
of the Old Babylonian Empire
Reign : c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC (MC)
Preceded by : Sin-Muballit
Succeeded by : Samsu-iluna
Born : c. 1810 BC Babylon
Died : c. 1750 BC (aged c. 60) Babylon
Issue : Samsu-iluna
Regnal
titles of Hammurabi : King of the Old Babylonian Empire
Hammurabi
(c. 1810 – c. 1750 BC) was the sixth Amorite king of the Old
Babylonian Empire, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded
by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health.
During his reign, he conquered Elam and the city-states of Larsa,
Eshnunna, and Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king of Assyria,
and forced his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, bringing almost all
of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule.
Hammurabi
is best known for having issued the Code of Hammurabi, which he
claimed to have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice.
Unlike earlier Sumerian law codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu,
which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, the Law
of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis
on the physical punishment of the perpetrator. It prescribed specific
penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish
the presumption of innocence. They were intended to limit what a
wronged person was permitted to do in retribution. The Code of Hammurabi
and the Law of Moses in the Torah contain numerous similarities.
Hammurabi
was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime. After his death,
Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror who spread civilization
and forced all peoples to pay obeisance to Marduk, the national
god of the Babylonians. Later, his military accomplishments became
de-emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary
aspect of his legacy. For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign
became the frame of reference for all events occurring in the distant
past. Even after the empire he built collapsed, he was still revered
as a model ruler, and many kings across the Near East claimed him
as an ancestor. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in
the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an important
figure in the history of law.
Life
:
Background and ascension :
Map
showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in c.
1792 BC and upon his death in c. 1750 BC
Hammurabi
ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst
of a complex geopolitical situation. Hammurabi was an Amorite First
Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the power
from his father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792 BC. Babylon was one of
the many largely Amorite ruled city-states that dotted the central
and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for
control of fertile agricultural land. Though many cultures co-existed
in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence
among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi.
The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor
city-state in 1894 BC, which controlled little territory outside
of the city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger, and
more powerful kingdoms such as Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna, and
Larsa for a century or so after its founding. However, his father
Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south
central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, by the time of his
reign, had conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and
Sippar.
The
powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River while
Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia lay
the powerful kingdom of Elam, which regularly invaded and forced
tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern
Mesopotamia, the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, who had already inherited
centuries old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor, had expanded his
territory into the Levant and central Mesopotamia, although his
untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire.
Reign
and conquests :
The first few years of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful.
Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works,
including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and
expanding the temples. In c. 1701 BC, the powerful kingdom of
Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros
Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain. With allies among the
plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna,
destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions
of the plain for the first time.
A
limestone votive monument from Sippar, Iraq, dating to c. 1792 –
c. 1750 BC showing King Hammurabi raising his right arm in worship,
now held in the British Museum
In
order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between
Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa. Hammurabi
and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this
duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did
not contribute greatly to the military effort. Angered by Larsa's
failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power,
thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain
by c. 1763 BC.
As
Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies
from the north such as Yamhad and Mari, the absence of soldiers
in the north led to unrest. Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi
turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest. Soon after,
he destroyed Eshnunna. Next the Babylonian armies conquered the
remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari,
although it is possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender
without any actual conflict.
Hammurabi
entered into a protracted war with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria for
control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor
states in order to gain the upper hand. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed,
ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death. Mut-Ashkur, the
new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi.
In
just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia
under his rule. The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to
pay tribute during his reign, and of the major city-states in the
region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained
their independence. However, one stele (stone momument) of Hammurabi
has been found as far north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title
"King of the Amorites".
Vast
numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and
his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.
These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an
empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed
calendar, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.
Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son
Samsu-iluna in c. 1750 BC, under whose rule the Babylonian empire
quickly began to unravel.
Code
of laws :
Code of Hammurabi stele. Louvre Museum, Paris
The
Code of Hammurabi was a collection of 282 laws dealing with a wide
range of issues. It is not the earliest surviving law code but was
proved more influential in world politics and international relations
as instead of focusing on compensating the victim of crime, as in
earlier Sumerian law codes, the Code of Hammurabi instead focused
on physically punishing the perpetrator. It was also one of the
first law codes to place restrictions on what a wronged person was
allowed to do in retribution and one of the earliest examples of
the idea of presumption of innocence, suggesting that the accused
and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence. The structure
of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified
punishment. Many offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, or the
use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis
"Law of Retaliation") philosophy.
The
Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public
place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few
were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and
removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901
in Iran and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The code of
Hammurabi contains 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets.
Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language
of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person
in the city. At this time, Akkadian replaced Sumerian, and Hammurabi
began language reforms that would make Akkadian the most common
language at this time. A carving at the top of the stele portrays
Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the Babylonian god
of justice, and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by
Shamash to bring the laws to the people.
Bas-relief of Hammurabi in the US Congress
Because
of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found
law buildings throughout the world. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers
depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House
of Representatives in the United States Capitol. A frieze by Adolph
Weinman depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including
Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.
Legacy
:
Posthumous
commemoration :
Tablet
of Hammurabi (4th line from the top), King of Babylon. British Museum
Hammurabi
was honored above all other kings of the second millennium BC and
he received the unique honor of being declared to be a god within
his own lifetime. The personal name "Hammurabi-ili" meaning
"Hammurabi is my god" became common during and after his
reign. In writings from shortly after his death, Hammurabi is commemorated
mainly for three achievements: bringing victory in war, bringing
peace, and bringing justice. Hammurabi's conquests came to be regarded
as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations.
A stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice as a mighty ruler
who forces evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship
Marduk. The stele declares: "The people of Elam, Gutium, Subartu,
and Tukrish, whose mountains are distant and whose languages are
obscure, I placed into [Marduk's] hand. I myself continued to put
straight their confused minds." A later hymn also written in
Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural force
for Marduk :
I
am the king, the brace that grasps wrongdoers, that makes people
of one mind,
I am the great dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,
I am the net that is stretched over the enemy,
I am the fear-inspiring, who, when lifting his fierce eyes, gives
the disobedient the death sentence,
I am the great net that covers evil intent,
I am the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,
I am the battle net that catches him who offends me.
After
extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, the hymn finally
declares: "I am Hammurabi, the king of justice." In later
commemorations, Hammurabi's role as a great lawgiver came to be
emphasized above all his other accomplishments and his military
achievements became de-emphasized. Hammurabi's reign became the
point of reference for all events in the distant past. A hymn to
the goddess Ishtar, whose language suggests it was written during
the reign of Ammisaduqa, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares:
"The king who first heard this song as a song of your heroism
is Hammurabi. This song for you was composed in his reign. May he
be given life forever!" For centuries after his death, Hammurabi's
laws continued to be copied by scribes as part of their writing
exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian.
Political
legacy :
Copy
of Hammurabi's stele usurped by Shutruk-Nahhunte I. The stele was
only partially erased and was never re-inscribed
During the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon usurped the position of "most
holy city" in southern Mesopotamia from its predecessor, Nippur.
Under the rule of Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna, the short-lived
Babylonian Empire began to collapse. In northern Mesopotamia, both
the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur-Sin
a native Akkadian-speaking ruler, c. 1740 BC. Around the same time,
native Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the
far south of Mesopotamia, creating the Sealand Dynasty, in more
or less the region of ancient Sumer. Hammurabi's ineffectual successors
met with further defeats and loss of territory at the hands of Assyrian
kings such as Adasi and Bel-ibni, as well as to the Sealand Dynasty
to the south, Elam to the east, and to the Kassites from the northeast.
Thus was Babylon quickly reduced to the small and minor state it
had once been upon its founding.
The
coup de grace for the Hammurabi's Amorite Dynasty occurred in 1595
BC, when Babylon was sacked and conquered by the powerful Hittite
Empire, thereby ending all Amorite political presence in Mesopotamia.
However, the Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not remain, turning
over Babylon to their Kassite allies, a people speaking a language
isolate, from the Zagros mountains region. This Kassite Dynasty
ruled Babylon for over 400 years and adopted many aspects of the
Babylonian culture, including Hammurabi's code of laws. Even after
the fall of the Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered
and revered. When the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte I raided Babylon
in 1158 BC and carried off many stone monuments, he had most of
the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions
carved into them. On the stele containing Hammurabi's laws, however,
only four or five columns were wiped out and no new inscription
was ever added. Over a thousand years after Hammurabi's death, the
kings of Suhu, a land along the Euphrates river, just northwest
of Babylon, claimed him as their ancestor.
Relationship
to Biblical figures and Mosaic law :
In the late nineteenth century, the Code of Hammurabi became a major
center of debate in the heated Babel und Bibel ("Babylon and
Bible") controversy in Germany over the relationship between
the Bible and ancient Babylonian texts. In January 1902, the German
Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture at the Sing-Akademie
zu Berlin in front of the Kaiser and his wife, in which he argued
that the Mosaic Laws of the Old Testament were directly copied off
the Code of Hammurabi. Delitzsch's lecture was so controversial
that, by September 1903, he had managed to collect 1,350 short articles
from newspapers and journals, over 300 longer ones, and twenty-eight
pamphlets, all written in response to this lecture, as well as the
preceding one about the Flood story in the Epic of Gilgamesh. These
articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch, though a few
were sympathetic. The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and
his radical views and, in fall of 1904, Delitzsch was forced to
give his third lecture in Cologne and Frankfurt am Main rather than
in Berlin. The putative relationship between the Mosaic Law and
the Code of Hammurabi later became a major part of Delitzsch's argument
in his 1920–21 book Die große Täuschung (The Great
Deception) that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably contaminated by
Babylonian influence and that only by eliminating the human Old
Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true,
Aryan message of the New Testament. In the early twentieth century,
many scholars believed that Hammurabi was Amraphel, the King of
Shinar in the Book of Genesis 14:1. This view has now been largely
rejected, and Amraphael's existence is not attested in any writings
from outside the Bible.
Parallels
between this narrative and the giving of the Covenant Code to Moses
by Yahweh atop Mount Sinai in the Biblical Book of Exodus and similarities
between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic
background of the two. Nonetheless, fragments of previous law codes
have been found and it is unlikely that the Mosaic laws were directly
inspired by the Code of Hammurabi. Some scholars have disputed this;
David P. Wright argues that the Jewish Covenant Code is "directly,
primarily, and throughout" based upon the Laws of Hammurabi.
In 2010, a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered
a cuneiform tablet dating to the eighteenth or seventeenth century
BC at Hazor in Israel containing laws clearly derived from the Code
of Hammurabi.
Source
:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi