PUNICS
![](415px-Phoenician_grinning_mask_-_Cagliari,_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_(26721011486).jpg)
Sardo-Punic
mask showing a Sardonic grin
![](241px-Terracota_orante_p%FAnica_Ibiza_(M.A.N.)_01.jpg)
Punic
praying statuette, c. 3rd century BC
![](Punic_building.jpg)
Ancient
excavated Punic building in Carthage
![](640px-Naval_battles,_ancient_and_modern_(1883)_(14578299319).jpg)
Painting
depicting the third Punic war
![](Carthage_-_Punic_port_-_model.jpg)
Model
of the Punic port, Carthage
The
Punics, Carthaginians or Western Phoenicians, were a group of peoples
in the Western Mediterranean who traced their origins to the Phoenicians.
In modern scholarship, the term 'Punic' – the Latin equivalent
of the Greek-derived term 'Phoenician' – is exclusively used
to refer to Phoenicians in the Western Mediterranean, following
the line of the Greek East and Latin West.
They
included mainly the inhabitants of its core homeland Ancient Carthage
(modern Tunis), as well as those colonial inhabitants of the settlements
that acknowledged Carthaginian leadership elsewhere in North Africa,
western Sicily, southern Sardinia, Malta, Ebusus, and southern Hispania.
Their language, Punic, was a dialect of Phoenician.
The
first Phoenicians settled in the western Mediterranean in the twelfth
century BC [citation needed] and formed part of trading networks
linked to Tyre and Sidon in Phoenicia. Although links with Phoenicia
were retained throughout their history, they also developed close
relations with other peoples of the western Mediterranean and developed
cultural traits distinct from those of the Phoenician motherland.
Some of these were shared by all western Phoenicians, while others
were restricted to individual regions within the Punic sphere.
The
western Phoenicians were arranged into a multitude of self-governing
city-states. Carthage had grown to be the largest and most powerful
of these city-states by the fifth century BC and gained increasingly
close control over Punic Sicily and Sardinia in the fourth century
BC, but other communities remained outside their control. In the
course of the Punic wars (264–146 BC), the Romans challenged
Carthaginian hegemony in the western Mediterranean, culminating
in the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, but the Punic language
and Punic culture endured under Roman rule, surviving in some places
until Late Antiquity.
Terminology
:
![](lossy-page1-602px-Sicily,_Greece,_4th_century_BC_-_Tetradrachm-_Persephone_(reverse)_-_1917.980.b_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg)
A
Carthaginian coin from Sicily depicting a horse in front of a palm
tree (called "Phoinix" in Greek), 4th century BC
The English adjective "Punic" is used in scholarship to
refer to the Western Phoenicians. The proper nouns "Punics"
and "Punes" were used in the 16th century, but are obsolete
and in current usage there is no proper noun. "Punic"
derives from the Latin poenus and punicus, which were used mostly
to refer to the Carthaginians and other western Phoenicians. These
terms derived from the Ancient Greek word "Phoinix", plural
form "Phoinikes", which was used indiscriminately to refer
to both western and eastern Phoenicians. Latin later borrowed the
Greek term a second time as "Phoenix", plural form "Phoenices",
also used indiscriminately.
Numismatic
evidence from Sicily shows that some western Phoenicians made use
of the term "Phoinix", but it is not clear what term (if
any) they used for themselves. A passage from Augustine has often
been interpreted as indicating that they called themselves "Chanani"
('Canaanites'), but it has been argued by Josephine Crawley Quinn
that this is a misreading, since although this term is "applied
to Levantine people" in the Hebrew Bible, "there is no
other evidence for self-identification as Canaanite, and so we might
suspect him of learned optimism." However, this opinion is
not shared by all scholars. St Augustine's quote reads: "When
our rural peasants are asked what they are, they reply, in Punic,
'Chanani', which is only a corruption by one letter of the alphabet
of what we would expect: What else should they reply except that
they are 'Chananei'?".
In
modern scholarship, the term 'Punic' is exclusively used to refer
to Phoenicians in the Western Mediterranean. Specific Punic groups
are often referred to with hyphenated terms, like 'Siculo-Punic'
or 'Sardo-Punic'. This practice has ancient roots: Hellenistic Greek
authors sometimes referred to the Punic inhabitants of North Africa
('Libya') as 'Liby-Phoenicians'.
Overview
:
Like other Phoenician people, their urbanized culture and economy
were strongly linked to the sea. Overseas, they established control
over some coastal regions of Berber Northwest Africa in what is
now Tunisia and Libya as well as Sardinia, Sicily, Ebusus, Malta
and other small islands of the western Mediterranean. In Sardinia
and Sicily, they had strong economic and political ties to the independent
natives in the hinterland. Their naval presence and trade extended
throughout the Mediterranean and beyond, to Atlantic Iberia, the
British Isles, the Canaries.
Technical
achievements of the Punic people of Carthage include the development
of uncolored glass and the use of lacustrine limestone to improve
the purity of iron.
Most
of the Punic culture was destroyed as a result of the Punic Wars
fought between Rome and Carthage, from 264 to 146 BC, but traces
of language, religion and technology could still be found in Africa
during the early Christianisation, from AD 325 to 650. After the
Punic Wars, Romans used the term Punic as an adjective meaning treacherous.
Distribution
:
Tunisia :
Tunisia was among the areas settled during the first wave of Phoenician
expansion into the west, with the foundation of Utica and Hippo
Regius taking place around the end of the twelfth century. Further
Phoenician settlements, were established in the following centuries,
including Hippo Diarrhytus and Hadrumetum.
The
foundation of Carthage on the site of modern Tunis is dated to the
late ninth century BC by Greek literary sources and archaeological
evidence. The literary sources attribute the foundation to a group
of Tyrian refugees led by Dido and accompanied by Cypriots. Archaeologically,
the new foundation is characterised by the focus of religious cult
on the gods Tanit and Baal Hammon, by the development of a new religious
structure, the tophet, and by a marked degree of cosmopolitanism.
Carthage
gained direct control over the Cap Bon peninsula, operating a sandstone
quarry at El Haouaria from the middle of the seventh city and establishing
the city of Kerkouane in the early sixth century. The region was
very fertile and allowed Carthage to be economically self-sufficient.
The site of Kerkouane has been extensively excavated and provides
the best-known example of a Punic city from North Africa.
Punic
control was also extended inland over the Libyans. Punic influence
on inland regions is seen from the early sixth century, notably
at Althiburos, where Punic construction techniques and red-slip
pottery appear at this time. Armed conflicts with the Libyans are
first attested in the early fifth century, with several revolts
attested in the fourth century (398, 370s, 310-307 BC). In the late
fourth century, Aristotle reports that the Carthaginians dealt with
local discontent by resettling poor citizens in cities in Libya.
These settlements had to provide tribute and military manpower when
required, but remained self-governing. There is some onomastic evidence
for intermarriage between Punic people and Libyans in the fourth
and third centuries BC.
Sardo-Punics
:
![](640px-Colonne_a_tharros.jpg)
Ruins
of the Punic and then Roman town of Tharros
From the 8th century BC, Phoenicians founded several cities and
strongholds on strategic points in the south and west of Sardinia,
often peninsulas or islands near estuaries, easy to defend and natural
harbours, such as Tharros, Bithia, Sulci, Nora and Caralis (Cagliari).
The north, the eastern coast and the interior of the island continued
to be dominated by the indigenous Nuragic civilization, whose relations
with the Sardo-Punic cities were mixed, including both trade and
military conflict. Intermarriage and cultural mixing took place
on a large scale. The inhabitants of the Sardo-Punic cities were
a mixture of Phoenician and Nuragic stock, with the latter forming
the majority of the population. Sardinia had a special position
because it was central in the Western Mediterranean between Carthage,
Spain, the river Rhône and the Etruscan civilization area.
The mining area of Iglesiente was important for the metals lead
and zinc.
The
island came under Carthaginian dominance around 510 BC, after that
a first attempt at conquest in 540 BC that ended in failure. They
expanded their influence to the western and southern coast from
Bosa to Caralis, consolidating the existing Phoenician settlements,
administered by plenipotentiaries called Suffetes, and founding
new ones such as Olbia, Cornus and Neapolis; Tharros was probably
the main centre. Carthage encouraged the cultivation of grain and
cereals and prohibited fruit trees. Tharros, Nora, Bithia, Monte
Sirai etc. are now important archaeological sites where Punic architecture
and city planning can be studied.
In
238 BC, following the First Punic War the Romans took over the whole
island, incorporating it into the province of Corsica et Sardinia,
under a praetor. The existing power structures, infrastructure,
and urbanized culture continued largely unchanged. In 216 BC, two
Sardo-Punic notables from Cornus and Tharros, Hampsicora and Hanno,
led a revolt against the Romans. Punic culture remained strong during
the first centuries of the Roman domination, but over time the civic
elites adopted Roman cultural practices and Latin became first the
prestige language and then the speech of the majority of the inhabitants.
Ibiza
:
The island of Ibiza derives its name from Phoenician: bšm,
"Dedicated to Bes". (Latin Ebusus). A city, the Sa Caleta
Phoenician Settlement, which has been excavated, was established
in the mid-seventh century. Diodorus dates this foundation to 654
BC and attributes it to the Carthaginians.
History
:
814 - 146 BC :
The Punic religion was based on that of their Phoenician forefathers,
who worshiped Baal Hammon and Melqart, but merged Phoenician ideas
with Numidian and some Greek and Egyptian deities, such as Apollo,
Tanit, and Dionysus, with Baal Hammon being clearly the most important
Punic god. Punic culture became a melting pot, since Carthage was
a big trading port, but the Carthaginians retained some of their
old cultural identities and practices.
The
Carthaginians carried out significant sea explorations around Africa
and elsewhere from their base in Carthage. In the 5th century BC,
Hanno the Navigator played a significant role in exploring coastal
areas of present-day Morocco and other parts of the African coast,
specifically noting details of indigenous peoples such as at Essaouira.
Carthaginians pushed westerly into the Atlantic and established
important settlements in Lixus, Volubilis, Chellah and Mogador,
among other locations.
Greek–Punic
and Roman–Punic Wars :
Being trade rivals with Magna Graecia, the Carthaginians had several
clashes with the Greeks over the island of Sicily in the Sicilian
Wars from 600 to 265 BC.
They
eventually also fought Rome in the Punic Wars of 265–146 BC
but lost because they were limited in numbers, and talented commanders,
had a misguided strategy in Hannibal's invasion of Italy, and misjudged
the strength of their navy, especially in the first Punic War. They
were soundly defeated by Scipio Africanus in Africa in 202 BC. That
enabled Roman settlement of Africa and eventual domination of the
Mediterranean Sea. Cato the Elder famously ended all his speeches,
regardless of their subject, with the imperative that Carthage be
utterly crushed, a view summarised in Latin by the phrase Praeterea
censeo Carthaginem esse delendam meaning, "Moreover, I declare,
Carthage must be destroyed!". Although the Carthaginians were
eventually conquered in 146 BC, with their city destroyed, Cato
never got to see his victory, having died 3 years earlier.
146
BC - AD 700 :
The destruction of Carthage was not the end of the Carthaginians.
After the wars, the city of Carthage was completely razed and the
land around it was turned into farmland for Roman citizens. There
were, however, other Punic cities in Northwest Africa, and Carthage
itself was rebuilt and regained some importance, if a shadow of
its ancient influence. Although the area was partially Romanized
and some of the population adopted the Roman religion (while fusing
it with aspects of their beliefs and customs), the language and
the ethnicity persisted for some time.[citation needed]
People
of Punic origin prospered again as traders, merchants and even politicians
of the Roman Empire. Septimius Severus, emperor of Rome and a proud
Punic, was said to speak Latin with a Punic accent. Under his reign
Carthaginians rose to the elites and their deities entered their
imperial cult. Carthage was rebuilt about 46 BC by Julius Caesar
and settlements in the surrounding area were granted to soldiers
who had retired from the Roman army. Carthage once again prospered
and even became the number-two trading city in the Roman Empire,
until Constantinople took over that position.
As
Christianity spread in the Roman Empire, it was especially successful
in Northwest Africa, and Carthage became a Christian city even before
Christianity was legal. Saint Augustine, born in Thagaste (modern-day
Algeria), considered himself Punic, and left some important reflections
on Punic cultural history in his writing. One of his more well known
passages reads: "It is an excellent thing that the Punic Christians
call baptism itself nothing else but ‘salvation’, and
the sacrament of Christ's body nothing else but ‘life’".
The
last remains of a distinct Punic culture probably disappeared somewhere
in the chaos during the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The demographic
and cultural characteristics of the region were thoroughly transformed
by turbulent events such as the Vandals' wars with Byzantines, the
forced population movements that followed and the early Muslim conquests
in the 7th century AD.[citation needed]
Notable
Carthaginians :
Particulars |
• |
Septimius
Severus (Roman emperor of Punic ethnicity from the
mainly Punic Libyan city of Leptis Magna, founded
by Phoenicians) |
• |
Caracalla,
his son |
• |
Vibia
Perpetua (early Christian martyr, also born in Carthage) |
• |
Mago,
agricultural writer |
• |
Hannibal,
Carthaginian general |
• |
Hamilcar
Barca, Carthaginian general, father of Hannibal |
• |
Hasdrubal
Barca, Carthaginian admiral, brother of Hannibal |
• |
Dido,
the legendary founder and first queen of Carthage
|
|
Source
:
https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Punics