Al-Mada'in
("The Cities"; Romanized: al-Mada'in; Aramaic: Mahoze
or Medinata) was an ancient metropolis on the Tigris River which
lay between the ancient royal centers of Ctesiphon and Seleucia.
It was founded during Sasanian rule, and was used as a synonym for
Ctesiphon by the Arabs, and later by the Muslims.
Foundation
and constitution :
According to folklore, al-Mada'in was constructed by the legendary
Iranian kings Tahmuras or Hushang, who named it Kardbandad.
The city was then later rebuilt by the legendary Iranian king
Zab, the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (r. 356–323
BCE) and the Sasanian king Shapur II (r. 309–379 CE).
According to another folklore, the names of five (or seven)
cities that al-Mada'in comprised were Aspanbur, Veh-Ardashir,
Hanbu Shapur, Darzanidan, Veh Jondiu-Khosrow, Nawinabad and
Kardakadh.
Sasanian
period :
![](424px-Karte_Seleucia_Ktesiphon.png)
Map
of Ctesiphon
According to Perso-Arabic sources, Ctesiphon, the capital of
the Sasanian Empire, was greatly enlarged and flourished during
their rule, thus turning into a metropolis, which was known
by in Arabic as al-Mada'in, and in Aramaic as Mahoze. The oldest
inhabited places of al-Mada'in was on its eastern side, which
in Arabic sources is called "the Old City", where
the residence of the Sasanians, known as the White Palace, was
located. The southern side of al-Mada'in was known as Aspanbar,
which was known by its prominent halls, riches, games, stables,
and baths.
The
western side was known as Veh-Ardashir (meaning "the good
city of Ardashir" in Middle Persian), known as Mahoza by
the Jews, Kokhe by the Christians, and Behrasir by the Arabs.
Veh-Ardashir was populated by many wealthy Jews, and was the
seat of the Church of the East patriarch. To the south of Veh-Ardashir
was Valashabad.
In
495, during the turbulent reign of King Kavadh I, Mahoza (as
the Jews called the city) was the scene of a Jewish revolt led
by Exilarch Mar-Zutra II. After the king denied Jews the right
to organize their own militia, Mar-Zutra took advantage of the
confusion into which Mazdak's communistic attempts had plunged
Persia and led a successful military revolt that achieved political
independence for the Jews of Mahoza. The Jewish state lasted
seven years until 502 CE when Kavadh finally defeated Mar-Zutra
and punished him with crucifixion on the bridge of Mahoza.
In
540, Khosrau I Anushirvan (r. 531–579) resettled captives
from Antioch to the south of Aspanbur, a place which became
known as Weh Antiok Khosrau, a Middle Persian name meaning "better
than Antioch, Khosrau built this". It was known by the
locals of the place as Rumagan ("town of the Romans"),
while the Arabs knew it as al-Rumiya (also spelled Rumiya).
In
590, a member of the House of Mihran, Bahram Chobin repelled
the newly ascended Sasanian ruler Khosrau II from Iraq, and
conquered the region. One year later, Khosrau II, with aid from
the Byzantine Empire, reconquered his domains. During his reign,
some of the great fame of al-Mada'in decreased, due to the popularity
of Khosrau's new winter residence, Dastagerd. In 628, a deadly
plague hit al-Mada'in and the rest of the western part of the
Sasanian Empire, which even killed Khosrau's son and successor,
Kavadh II.
In
629, al-Mada'in was briefly under the control of Mihranid usurper
Shahrbaraz, but the latter was shortly assassinated by the supporters
of Khosrau II's daughter Borandukht. Al-Mada'in then continued
to be involved in constant fighting between two factions of
the Sasanian Empire, the Pahlav (Parthian) faction under the
House of Ispahbudhan and the Parsig (Persian) faction under
Piruz Khosrow.
Rashidun
and Umayyad period :
![](Arabische_Eroberung_2.jpg)
Map
of the Muslim expansion and the Muslim world under the Umayyad
and early Abbasid caliphates
In 636, the Muslim Arabs, who had since 633 invaded the territories
of the Sasanian Empire, defeated them during a great battle
known as the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah. The Arabs then attacked
Ctesiphon, and seized some parts of al-Mada'in.
The
Muslim military officer Khalid ibn 'Urfuta quickly seized Valashabad
and made a peace treaty with the inhabitants of Rumiya and Behrasir.
The terms of the treaty was that the inhabitants of Rumiya were
allowed to leave if they wanted to, but if they did not, they
were forced to acknowledge Muslim authority, and also pay tribute
(jizya). When the Muslim military officer (and one of the companions
of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad) Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas arrived
to al-Mada'in, it was completely desolated, due to flight of
the Sasanian royal family, nobles, and troops. However, the
Muslims had managed to take some of troops captive, and many
riches were seized from the Sasanian treasury and was given
to the Muslim troops. In 637 Sa`d made Qa'qa' ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi
responsible for the defense of al-Mada'in, and Shurahbil ibn
al-Simt as the governor of al-Mada'in. The Persian companion
of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Salman the Persian was buried
in al-Mada'in in 656/7.
In
661, al-Mada'in was under control of the Umayyad Caliphate,
which had put an end to the Rashidun Caliphate. A certain Simak
ibn 'Ubayd al-'Absi served as the governor of the metropolis
in 663, and another person named Ishaq ibn Mas'ud served as
its governor in 685. The Azariqa, a faction of the Kharijites,
attacked al-Mada'in in 687/8, and massacred its inhabitants.
The city was then governed by Kardam ibn Martad ibn Najaba,
and some time later by Yazid ibn Harith al-Shaybani. In 696,
the Kharjite leader Shabib ibn Yazid al-Shaybani briefly occupied
al-Mada'in. In 697, Mutarrif ibn al-Mughira was made the governor
of al-Mada'in, and later in 701, Hanzala ibn al-Warrad and Ibn
'Attab ibn Warqa' were appointed as the combined governors of
the metropolis. Some time later, the governorship of al-Mada'in
was abolished.
Abbasid
period :
![](640px-Iraq_in_812.svg.png)
Map
of Iraq and surrounding regions in the early ninth century
In 750, the Abbasid family captured al-Mada'in and the rest
of Iraq, and declared themselves as the new caliphate. In 754,
the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur briefly held his court at Rumiya
(which was included in al-Mada'in). He also had his prominent
military officer Abu Muslim Khorasani killed at the same place.
In 755, the White Palace of al-Mada'in was destroyed under the
orders of al-Mansur, who wanted to create a new city, which
would later get completed in 762, and would be known as Baghdad,
and would become the new capital of the Abbasid Caliphate (although
he ordered the White Palace to be restored, it remained in decay).
After the foundation of Baghdad, the decline of al-Mada'in became
faster, and many of the inhabitants resettled in Baghdad, while
the Nestorian patriarch and the exilarch were forced to move
to the city. Nevertheless, the patriarch Timothy I founded a
hospital at al-Mada'in in 790.
During
the Great Abbasid Civil War (809–813) between Caliph al-Amin
(r. 809–813), and his brother al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833),
al-Mada'in was captured in 812 by al-Ma'mun's general Tahir
ibn Husayn, who then marched towards Baghdad. In 817, the people
of Baghdad revolted, and proclaimed the Abbasid prince Ibrahim
ibn al-Mahdi as their leader. The rebels also managed to capture
Baghdad's surrounding regions, which included al-Mada'in. One
year later, al-Mada'in was recaptured by al-Ma'mun's Persian
officer al-Hasan ibn Sahl, and by the next year, Iraq was once
again under the control of al-Ma'mun.
During
the Caliphal Civil War (865–866), Abi'l-Saj Devdad, a
relative of the Iranian prince Afshin, was put charge in the
defense of al-Mada'in in 865. The Abbasid caliphs al-Mu'tadid
(r. 892–902) and al-Muqtafi (r. 902–908) further
ruined al-Mada'in by digging it up for building materials to
construct the Taj Palace in Baghdad. In August 942, a battle
occurred at al-Mada'in between a combined Hamdanid-Turkish army
and the Baridis, who both fought for the de facto rule over
Iraq. The battle ended in a Baridi defeat.
Buyid
period :
In 945, the Iranian Buyid prince Ahmad ibn Buya seized al-Mada'in
including the rest of Iraq, and made the Caliph his vassal.
In 973, the Turkish rebel Sabuktakin seized al-Mada'in and much
of Iraq from Mu'izz al-Dawla's son and successor Izz al-Dawla,
however in 974 al-Mada'in was once again under Buyid control,
and by 975 the rebels were defeated. However, one year later,
after the death of the Buyid supreme leader Rukn al-Dawla, a
civil war ensured between Izz al-Dawla and his cousin, 'Adud
al-Dawla, who ruled Fars, Oman, and Kerman. 'Adud al-Dawla eventually
managed to emerge victorious, and conquer all of Iraq.
After
the death of 'Adud al-Dawla in 983, he was succeeded by his
son Samsam al-Dawla, who, however, met resistance by his brother
Sharaf al-Dawla, who conquered Fars and Kerman. In 987, Sharaf
al-Dawla captured al-Mada'in and then conquered the rest of
Iraq. Between 999-1002, the Asadis and the Uqaylids made several
incursions into Iraq, and even captured al-Mada'in. In 1002,
they defended al-Mada'in from a counter-attack by Sharaf al-Dawla's
brother and successor, Baha' al-Dawla (r. 988–1012). A
battle shortly ensured at Hillah between a combined Asadis-Uqaylids
army and a Buyid army under Abu Ja'far al-Hajjaj, who had received
reinforcements by Bedouins and the Kurdish Annazids. The battle
ended in a Buyid victory, and resulted in the reconquest of
al-Mada'in and the rest of Iraq.
Seljuq
period and Abbasid insurgency :
In 1055, the ruler of the Turkic Seljuq Empire, Tughril, invaded
Iraq and made the Buyid ruler of the region, Al-Malik al-Rahim,
his vassal. In 1199, the Jews of al-Mada'in complained about
the construction of a mosque that was close to their synagogue.
They then openly revolted, and attacked the leader of the mosque
and his supporters, with ended in a Muslim defeat. The Muslims
then complained to al-Nasir's secretary and requested for aid.
Al-Nasir agreed to help, and had the synagogue destroyed.
Safavid
and Ottoman period :
The tomb of Salman the Persian was restored during the reign
of the Ottoman Sultan Murad IV (r. 1623-40) and was further
restored in 1904-1905.[citation needed]
Population
and religion :
During the Sasanian period, population of al-Mada'in was heavily
mixed, it included Arameans, Persians, Greeks, and Assyrians.
Several religions were also practiced in the metropolis, which
included Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. The population
also included Manicheans, who continued to be mentioned in al-Mada'in
during Umayyad rule. Much of the population fled from al-Mada'in
after the Arab capture of the metropolis. However, a portion
of Persians remained there, and some important figures of these
people are known to have provided Ali with presents, which he,
however, refused to take. After the Battle of Siffin, the Persian
population of al-Mada'in disappeared.
During
the early Islamic period, the population of al-Mada'in consisted
of tribal Arab leaders from Kufa, leaders of the Banu Azd, and
figures of prominent Muslim families, who were, unlike the rest
of population, not tribal. A companion of the Islamic prophet
Muhammad, Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman was one of these Arab leaders
from Kufa, and is known to have had a Christian or Jewish woman
from al-Mada'in as his wife, who, he, however, was forced by
the Rashidun Caliph Umar to divorce because of the population
of marriageable Muslim women in the metropolis was enough to
marry.
However,
during this period much of the population of al-Mada'in resettled
in the cities of Basra and Kufa, Wasit, and Baghdad. But at
the same time people also moved to the metropolis from Kufa,
Basra, and other places. Prominent figures such as Hilal ibn
Khabab (who was from Kufa) and Nasr ibn Hajib al-Qurashi (who
was from Khorasan) also moved to al-Mada'in. A very small minority
of Zoroastrians also seems to have lived in the metropolis,
such as the father of the Khurramite Babak Khorramdin, who had
resettled in Azerbaijan and married a local woman, who bore
him Babak. During the 13th century, the majority of al-Mada'in's
population was Twelver Shia Muslim farmers.
Archeology
:
![](640px-Ctesiphon,_Iraq,_1932.jpg)
Great
arch of Taq-i Kisra, 1921
Al-Mada'in has received considerable interest from archaeologists
since the 18th century; the most famous landmark there is the
Taq-i Kisra.
Excavation
sites and ancient suburbs include :
•
Seleucia
• Ctesiphon (previously thought to have
been Opis, whose exact location is not confirmed)
• Aspanbur (Also written Isbanir, Asbanabr,
Aspanbar, Asfanur)
• Veh Ardashir (Also Bahurasir, Coche,
Choche)
• Valashabad (Balashkert), founded by
Vologases I
• Al-Ma’aridh
• Tell al-Dhaba’I
• Tell Dhahab
• Umm an Sa’atir
The site partially overlaps with the modern town of Salman Pak.
Source
:
https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Al-Mada%27in