MITANNI
![](640px-Carte_du_Mitanni.png)
Kingdom
of Mitanni at its greatest extent under Parshatatar c. 15th century
BC
Mitanni
(Hittite cuneiform KUR URU Mi-ta-an-ni; Mittani Mi-it-ta-ni),
also called Hanigalbat or Hani-Rabbat (Hanikalbat, Khanigalbat,
cuneiform Ha-ni-gal-bat, Ha-ni-rab-bat) in Assyrian or Naharin
in Egyptian texts, was a Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria
and southeast Anatolia.
Currently
there are two hypotheses regarding how Mitanni was formed :
First
theory: Mitanni was already a powerful kingdom at the end of the
17th century or in the first half of the 16th century BC, and
its beginnings are from before the time of Thutmose I, so dated
to the time of the Hittite sovereigns Hattusili I and Mursili
I, when the middle chronology is applied.
Second
theory: Mitanni came to be due to a political vacuum in Syria,
which had been created first through the destruction of the kingdom
of Yamhad by the Hittites and then through the inability of Hatti
to maintain control of the region during the period following
the death of Mursili I.
If
the second hypothesis is considered, Mitanni (c. 1500 to 1300
BC as per short chronology) could have come to be a regional power
after the Hittite destruction of Amorite Babylon occurred in 1531
(also in short chronology), and a series of ineffectual Assyrian
kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia.
While
the Mitanni kings and other members of royalty bore names resembling
Indo-Aryan phonology, they used the language of the local people,
which was at that time a non-Indo-European language, Hurrian.
Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal
names and the spread through Syria and the Levant of a distinct
pottery type.
The
beginning :
The Mitanni kingdom began, as Mirko Novák claims, a little
after 1600 BCE, during the Old Babylonian period, at least two
generations before the sack of Babylon by the Hittites which Novák
considers to have been in 1522 BC (J. Mebert´s low chronology),
when a certain "King of the Hurrians," in all likelihood
one of the first Mitanni rulers, appeared as one opponent of Hattusili
I. But, as new excavations and radiocarbon datings in Zincirli
Höyük confirm the middle chronology for Hittite king
Hattusili I, (1650-1620 BCE), the beginning of Mitanni realm can
also be suggested to have taken place around the mid 17th century
BCE. The sack of Zincirli Höyük could have been part
of Hattusili I's campaign against Zalpa in order to disrupt an
exchange network connected to Aleppo that previously linked the
Euphrates, North Syria, and Central Anatolia.
The
recent (2017) salvage excavations at the Ilisu Dam in the upper
Tigris, southern Turkey, also have shown a very early beginning
of Mitanni period, as in the ruins of a temple in Müslümantepe,
ritual artefacts and a Mitannian cylinder seal were found, radiocarbon-dated
to 1760-1610 BCE. Archaeologist Eyyüp Ay, in his (2021) paper,
describes the second phase of the temple as an "administrative
center, which had craftsmen working in its workshops as well as
farmers, gardeners and shepherds, [that] might have been ruled
by a priest bound to a powerful Mitannian leader."
As
another recent archaeological excavation suggests, early Mitanni´s
territory could have also been to the east of upper Tigris river,
as a town now called Bassetki was excavated in northern Iraq,
which in all likelihood was the ancient town of Mardama with Mitanni
layers from 1550 to 1300 BCE, as its Phase A9 (in trench T2) may
alternatively represent a Middle Bronze/Late Bronze transitional,
or Proto-Mitanni occupation within 16th century BCE. In a subsequent
excavation season, the deeper Phase A10 was identified as having
a mix of Middle Bronze and Mitanni potteries, considered to be
in the turn of the Middle to the Late Bronze Age transitional
period (late 17th - early 16th century BCE).
Archaeologically,
Mitanni's first phase in Jazira Region features Late Khabur Ware
from around 1600 to 1550 BCE, as this pottery was a continuity
from non-Mitannian previous Old Babylonian period. From around
1550 to 1270 BCE, Painted Nuzi Ware (the most characteristic pottery
in Mitanni times) developed as a contemporary to Younger Khabur
Ware.
At
least since around 1550 BCE, in the beginning of Late Bronze age,
Painted Nuzi Ware was identified as a characteristic pottery in
Mitanni sites, the origin of this decorated pottery is an unsolved
question, but a possible previous development as Aegean Kamares
Ware has been suggested by Pecorelia (2000), and S. Soldi claims
that Tell Brak was one of the first centers specializing in the
production of this Painted Nuzi Ware, and analyses on samples
support the assumption that it was produced locally in various
centers throughout the Mitanni kingdom, it was particularly appreciated
in the Jazira Region, but appears only sporadically in western
Syrian cities such as Alalakh and Ugarit.
At
the beginning of its history, Mitanni's major rival was Egypt
under the Thutmosids. However, with the ascent of the Hittite
Empire, Mitanni and Egypt struck an alliance to protect their
mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination.
At
the height of its power, during the 15th and the first half of
14th century BCE, a large region from North-West Syria to the
Eastern Tigris was under Mitanni's control. Mitanni had outposts
centred on its capital, Washukanni, whose location has been determined
by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the Khabur River.
The Mitanni dynasty ruled over the northern Euphrates-Tigris region
between c. 1600 and 1350 BCE. Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to
Hittite and later Assyrian attacks and was reduced to the status
of a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire between c. 1350 and
1260 BCE.
Geography
:
The Mitanni controlled trade routes down the Khabur to Mari and
up the Euphrates from there to Carchemish. For a time they also
controlled the Assyrian territories of the upper Tigris and its
headwaters at Nineveh, Erbil, Assur and Nuzi. Their allies included
Kizuwatna in southeastern Anatolia; Mukish, which stretched between
Ugarit and Quatna west of the Orontes to the sea; and the Niya,
which controlled the east bank of the Orontes from Alalah down
through Aleppo, Ebla and Hama to Qatna and Kadesh. To the east,
they had good relations with the Kassites. The land of Mitanni
in northern Syria extended from the Taurus mountains to its west
and as far east as Nuzi (modern Kirkuk) and the river Tigris in
the east. In the south, it extended from Aleppo across (Nuhasse)
to Mari on the Euphrates in the east. Its centre was in the Khabur
River valley, with two capitals: Taite and Washukanni, called
Taidu and Ussukana respectively in Assyrian sources. Washukanni
was located in Tell Fekheriye as recent German archaeological
excavations suggest. The whole area supported agriculture without
artificial irrigation and cattle, sheep and goats were raised.
It is very similar to Assyria in climate, and was settled by both
indigenous Hurrian and Amoritic-speaking (Amurru) populations.
Name
:
|
Era
: New Kingdom |
(1550–1069
BC) |
Egyptian
hieroglyphs |
The
Mitanni kingdom was referred to as the Maryannu, Nahrin or Mitanni
by the Egyptians, the Hurri by the Hittites, and the Hanigalbat
or Hani-Rabbat by the Assyrians. The different names seem to have
referred to the same kingdom and were used interchangeably, according
to Michael C. Astour. Hittite annals mention a people called Hurri
(Hu-ur-ri), located in northeastern Syria. A Hittite fragment,
probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions a "King of
the Hurri." The Assyro-Akkadian version of the text renders
"Hurri" as Hanigalbat. Tushratta, who styles himself
"king of Mitanni" in his Akkadian Amarna letters, refers
to his kingdom as Hanigalbat.
The
earliest attestation of the term Hanigalbat can be read in Akkadian
within the "Annals of Hattusili I" (c. 1650-1620 BCE)
along with the Hittite version mentioning "the Hurrian enemy".
Egyptian
sources call Mitanni "nhrn", which is usually pronounced
as Naharin(a), from the Assyro-Akkadian word for "river,"
cf. Aram-Naharaim. The name Mitanni is first found in the "memoirs"
of the Syrian wars (c. 1480 BC) of the official astronomer and
clockmaker Amenemhet, who returned from the "foreign country
called Me-ta-ni" at the time of Thutmose I. The expedition
to the Naharina announced by Thutmosis I at the beginning of his
reign may have actually taken place during the long previous reign
of Amenhotep I. Helck believes that this was the expedition mentioned
by Amenhotep II.
The
reading of the Assyrian term Hanigalbat has a history of multiple
renderings. The first portion has been connected to, Ha-nu,"
"Hanu" or "Hana," first attested in Mari to
describe nomadic inhabitants along the southern shore of the northern
Euphrates region, near the vicinity of Terqa and the Khabur River.
The term developed into more than just a designation for a people
group, but also took on a topographic aspect as well. In the Middle
Assyrian period, a phrase "URUKUR Ha-nu AN.TA," "cities
of the Upper Hanu" has suggested that there was a distinction
between two different Hanu's, likely across each side of the river.
This northern side designation spans much of the core territory
of Mitanni state.
The
two signs that have led to variant readings are "gal"
and its alternative form "gal9". The first attempts
at decipherment in the late 1800s rendered forms interpreting
"gal," meaning "great" in Sumerian, as a logogram
for Akkadian "rab" having the same meaning; "?ani-Rabbat"
denoting "the Great Hani". J. A. Knudtzon, and E. A.
Speiser after him, supported instead the reading of "gal"
on the basis of its alternative spelling with "gal9",
which has since become the majority view.
There
is still a difficulty to explain the suffix "-bat" if
the first sign did not end in "b," or the apparent similarity
to the Semitic feminine ending "-at," if derived from
a Hurrian word. More recently, in 2011, scholar Miguel Valério,
then at the New University of Lisbon provided detailed support
in favor to the older reading Hani-Rabbat. The re-reading makes
argument on basis of frequency, where "gal" not "gal9,"
is far more numerous; the later being the deviation found in six
documents, all from the periphery of the Akkadian sphere of influence.
Additionally argued, although graphically distinct, there is a
high degree of overlap between the two signs, as "gal9"
denotes "dannum" or ""strong"" opposed
to "great", easily being used as synonyms. Both signs
also represent correlative readings; alternative readings of "gal9"
include "rib" and "rip," just like "gal"
being read as "rab."
People
:
![](Cylinder_seal,ca._16th%9615th_century_BC_Mitanni.jpg)
Cylinder
seal, c. 16th – 15th century BC, Mitanni
The ethnicity of the people of Mitanni is difficult to ascertain.
A treatise on the training of chariot horses by Kikkuli, a Mitanni
writer, contains a number of Indo-Aryan glosses. Kammenhuber [de]
suggested that this vocabulary was derived from the still undivided
Indo-Iranian language, but Mayrhofer has shown that specifically
Indo-Aryan features are present.
The
names of the Mitanni aristocracy frequently are of Indo-Aryan
origin, and their deities also show Indo-Aryan roots (Mitra, Varuna,
Indra, Nasatya). These Indo Aryan deities are listed in two treaties
between Mitanni and Hatti from Hattusa: (treaty KBo I 3) and (treaty
KBo I 1 and its duplicates), the kings involved are Sattiwaza
of Mitanni and Suppiluliuma the Hittite. The British Museum considers
these documents as being from a date around 1350 BC. The common
people's language, the Hurrian language, is neither Indo-European
nor Semitic. Hurrian is related to Urartian, the language of Urartu,
both belonging to the Hurro-Urartian language family. It had been
held that nothing more can be deduced from current evidence. A
Hurrian passage in the Amarna letters – usually composed
in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the day – indicates that
the royal family of Mitanni was by then speaking Hurrian as well.
Bearers
of names in the Hurrian language are attested in wide areas of
Syria and the northern Levant that are clearly outside the area
of the political entity known to Assyria as Hanilgalbat. There
is no indication that these persons owed allegiance to the political
entity of Mitanni; although the German term Auslandshurriter ("Hurrian
expatriates") has been used by some authors. In the 14th
century BC numerous city-states in northern Syria and Canaan were
ruled by persons with Hurrian and some Indo-Aryan names. If this
can be taken to mean that the population of these states was Hurrian
as well, then it is possible that these entities were a part of
a larger polity with a shared Hurrian identity. This is often
assumed, but without a critical examination of the sources. Differences
in dialect and regionally different pantheons (Hepat/Shawushka,
Sharruma/Tilla etc.) point to the existence of several groups
of Hurrian speakers.
History
:
No native sources for the history of Mitanni have been found so
far. The account is mainly based on Assyrian, Hittite, and Egyptian
sources, as well as inscriptions from nearby places in Syria.
Often it is not even possible to establish synchronicity between
the rulers of different countries and cities, let alone give uncontested
absolute dates. The definition and history of Mitanni is further
beset by a lack of differentiation between linguistic, ethnic
and political groups.
Summary
:
![](Cylinder_seal_and_modern_impression_Nude_male,_griffins,_monkey,_lion,_goat,_ca_15th_14th_century_BC_Mitanni.jpg)
Cylinder
seal and modern impression: nude male, griffins, monkey, lion,
goat, c. 15th/14th century BC, Mitanni
It is believed that the warring Hurrian tribes and city states
became united under one dynasty after the collapse of Babylon
due to its sacking by Hittite king Mursili I, and the Kassite
invasion. The Hittite conquest of Aleppo (Yamhad), the weak middle
Assyrian kings who succeeded Puzur-Ashur III, and the internal
strife of the Hittites had created a power vacuum in upper Mesopotamia.
This led to the formation of the kingdom of Mitanni.
The
first known use (by now) of Indo-Aryan names for Mitanni rulers
begins with Shuttarna I who succeeded his father Kirta on the
throne. King Barattarna of Mitanni expanded the kingdom west to
Aleppo and made the Amorite king Idrimi of Alalakh his vassal,
and five generations seems to separate this king (also known as
Parattarna) from the rise of Mitanni kingdom. The state of Kizzuwatna
in the west also shifted its allegiance to Mitanni, and Assyria
in the east had become largely a Mitannian vassal state by the
mid-15th century BC. The nation grew stronger during the reign
of Shaushtatar, but the Hurrians were keen to keep the Hittites
inside the Anatolian highland. Kizzuwatna in the west and Ishuwa
in the north were important allies against the hostile Hittites.
After
a few successful clashes with the Egyptians over the control of
Syria, Mitanni sought peace with them, and an alliance was formed.
During the reign of Shuttarna II, in the early 14th century BC,
the relationship was very amicable, and he sent his daughter Gilu-Hepa
to Egypt for a marriage with Pharaoh Amenhotep III. Mitanni was
now at its peak of power.
However,
by the reign of Eriba-Adad I (1390–1366 BC) Mitanni influence
over Assyria was on the wane. Eriba-Adad I became involved in
a dynastic battle between Tushratta and his brother Artatama II
and after this his son Shuttarna II, who called himself king of
the Hurri while seeking support from the Assyrians. A pro-Hurri/Assyria
faction appeared at the royal Mitanni court. Eriba-Adad I had
thus loosened Mitanni influence over Assyria, and in turn had
now made Assyria an influence over Mitanni affairs. King Ashur-Uballit
I (1365–1330 BC) of Assyria attacked Shuttarna and annexed
Mitanni territory in the middle of the 14th century BC, making
Assyria once more a great power.
At
the death of Shuttarna, Mitanni was ravaged by a war of succession.
Eventually Tushratta, a son of Shuttarna, ascended the throne,
but the kingdom had been weakened considerably and both the Hittite
and Assyrian threats increased. At the same time, the diplomatic
relationship with Egypt went cold, the Egyptians fearing the growing
power of the Hittites and Assyrians. The Hittite king Suppiluliuma
I invaded the Mitanni vassal states in northern Syria and replaced
them with loyal subjects.
In
the capital Washukanni, a new power struggle broke out. The Hittites
and the Assyrians supported different pretenders to the throne.
Finally a Hittite army conquered the capital Washukanni and installed
Shattiwaza, the son of Tushratta, as their vassal king of Mitanni
in the late 14th century BC. The kingdom had by now been reduced
to the Khabur Valley. The Assyrians had not given up their claim
on Mitanni, and in the 13th century BC, Shalmaneser I annexed
the kingdom.
The
following is a tentative correlation of Mitanni with nearby kingdoms
until the reign of Tusratta by Stefano de Martino :
Mitanni |
Particulars |
Principate
of Mittani |
Hatti
: Hattušili I |
Rise
of the kingdom of Mittani |
Hatti
: Muršili I |
First
attestation of Mittani |
Egypt
: Tuthmosis I |
Kirta
(?) |
---
|
Šuttarna
I (?) |
Terqa
: Qiš-Addu |
Parattarna
I |
Egypt
: ? Tuthmosis III ?
Hatti
: Zidanza II
Alalah
: Idrimi
Kizzuwatna
:
Pilliya
Terqa
: Qiš-Addu |
Sausadat
(??) |
---
|
Parsatatar
|
---
|
Sauštatar
|
Egypt
: ? Tuthmosis III ?
Hatti
: Tuthaliya I/II
Alalah
: Niqmepa
Kizzuwatna
: Šunaššura
Terqa
: Qiš-Addu
|
Parattarna
II (??) |
|
Artatama
I |
|
Šuttarna
II |
|
Artašumara
(Uthi) |
|
Tušratta
|
Egypt
: Amenophis IV
Hatti
: Šuppiluliuma I
|
Early
kingdom :
As early as Akkadian times, Hurrians are known to have lived east
of the river Tigris on the northern rim of Mesopotamia, and in
the Khabur Valley. The group which became Mitanni gradually moved
south into Mesopotamia before the 17th century BC. If we trust
in one hypothesis on the beginnings of Mitanni, it was already
a powerful kingdom at the end of the 17th century or in the first
half of the 16th century BC, and its beginnings date to well before
the time of Thutmose I, dating actually to the time of the Hittite
sovereigns Hattusili I and Mursili I.
Hurrians
are mentioned in the private Nuzi texts, in Ugarit, and the Hittite
archives in Hattusa (Bogazköy). Cuneiform texts from Mari
mention rulers of city-states in upper Mesopotamia with both Amurru
(Amorite) and Hurrian names. Rulers with Hurrian names are also
attested for Urshum and Hassum, and tablets from Alalakh (layer
VII, from the later part of the Old Babylonian period) mention
people with Hurrian names at the mouth of the Orontes. There is
no evidence for any invasion from the North-east. Generally, these
onomastic sources have been taken as evidence for a Hurrian expansion
to the South and the West.
A
Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions
a "King of the Hurrians" (LUGAL ERÍN.MEŠ
Hurri). This terminology was last used for King Tushratta of Mitanni,
in a letter in the Amarna archives. The normal title of the king
was 'King of the Hurri-men' (without the determinative KUR indicating
a country).
It
is believed that the warring Hurrian tribes and city states became
united under one dynasty after the collapse of Babylon due to
the Hittite sack by Mursili I and the Kassite invasion. The Hittite
conquest of Aleppo (Yamkhad), the weak middle Assyrian kings,
and the internal strifes of the Hittites had created a power vacuum
in upper Mesopotamia. This led to the formation of the kingdom
of Mitanni. The legendary founder of the Mitannian dynasty was
a king called Kirta, who was followed by a king Shuttarna. Nothing
is known about these early kings.
Barattarna
/ Parsha(ta)tar :
King Barattarna is known from a cuneiform tablet in Nuzi and an
inscription by Idrimi of Alalakh. Egyptian sources do not mention
his name; that he was the king of Naharin whom Thutmose III fought
against in the 15th century BC can only be deduced from assumptions.
Whether Parsha(ta)tar, known from another Nuzi inscription, is
the same as Barattarna, or a different king, is debated. This
king, also known as Parratarna is considered, by J. A. Belmonte-Marin
quoting H. Klengel, to have reigned, as per middle chronology
(c. 1510–1490 BCE).
Under
the rule of Thutmose III, Egyptian troops crossed the Euphrates
and entered the core lands of Mitanni. At Megiddo, he fought an
alliance of 330 Mitanni princes and tribal leaders under the ruler
of Kadesh. See Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC). Mitanni had
sent troops as well. Whether this was done because of existing
treaties, or only in reaction to a common threat, remains open
to debate. The Egyptian victory opened the way north.
Thutmose
III again waged war in Mitanni in the 33rd year of his rule. The
Egyptian army crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish and reached
a town called Iryn (maybe present day Erin, 20 km northwest of
Aleppo.) They sailed down the Euphrates to Emar (Meskene) and
then returned home via Mitanni. A hunt for elephants at Lake Nija
was important enough to be included in the annals. This was impressive
propaganda, but did not lead to any permanent rule. [citation
needed] Only the area at the middle Orontes and Phoenicia became
part of Egyptian territory.
Victories
over Mitanni are recorded from the Egyptian campaigns in Nuhasse
(middle part of Syria). Again, this did not lead to permanent
territorial gains. Barattarna or his son Shaushtatar controlled
the North Mitanni interior up to Nuhasse, and the coastal territories
from Kizzuwatna to Alalakh in the kingdom of Mukish at the mouth
of the Orontes. Idrimi of Alalakh, returning from Egyptian exile,
could only ascend his throne with Barattarna's consent. While
he got to rule Mukish and Ama'u, Aleppo remained with Mitanni.
Shaushtatar
:
![](640px-Royal_seal_of_%8Aau%9Atatar_of_Mitanni.svg.png)
Shaushtatar's
royal seal
Shaushtatar, king of Mitanni, perhaps the most outstanding Mitannian
king, reigned c. 1500–1450 BCE, he sacked the Assyrian capital
of Assur some time in the 15th century during the reign of Nur-ili,
and took the silver and golden doors of the royal palace to Washukanni.
This is known from a later Hittite document, the Suppililiuma-Shattiwaza
treaty. After the sack of Assur, Assyria may have paid tribute
to Mitanni up to the time of Eriba-Adad I (1390–1366 BC).
There is no trace of that in the Assyrian king lists; therefore
it is probable that Ashur was ruled by a native Assyrian dynasty
owing sporadic allegiance to the house of Shaushtatar. While a
sometime vassal of Mitanni, the temple of Sin and Shamash was
built in Ashur.
The
states of Aleppo in the west, and Nuzi and Arrapha in the east,
seem to have been incorporated into Mitanni under Shaushtatar
as well. The palace of the crown prince, the governor of Arrapha
has been excavated. A letter from Shaushtatar was discovered in
the house of Shilwe-Teshup. His seal shows heroes and winged geniuses
fighting lions and other animals, as well as a winged sun. This
style, with a multitude of figures distributed over the whole
of the available space, is taken as typically Hurrian. A second
seal, belonging to Shuttarna I, but used by Shaushtatar, found
in Alalakh, shows a more traditional Assyro-Akkadian style.
The
military superiority of Mitanni was probably based on the use
of two-wheeled war-chariots, driven by the 'Marjannu' people.
A text on the training of war-horses, written by a certain "Kikkuli
the Mitannian" has been found in the archives recovered at
Hattusa. More speculative is the attribution of the introduction
of the chariot in Mesopotamia to early Mitanni.
During
the reign of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep II, Mitanni seems to have
regained influence in the middle Orontes valley that had been
conquered by Thutmose III. Amenhotep fought in Syria in 1425 BC,
presumably against Mitanni as well, but did not reach the Euphrates.
Artatama
I and Shuttarna II :
Later on, Egypt and Mitanni became allies, and King Shuttarna
II himself was received at the Egyptian court. Amicable letters,
sumptuous gifts, and letters asking for sumptuous gifts were exchanged.
Mitanni was especially interested in Egyptian gold. This culminated
in a number of royal marriages: the daughter of King Artatama
I was married to Thutmose IV. Kilu-Hepa, or Gilukhipa, the daughter
of Shuttarna II, was married to Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who ruled
in the early 14th century BC. In a later royal marriage Tadu-Hepa,
or Tadukhipa, the daughter of Tushratta, was sent to Egypt.
When
Amenhotep III fell ill, the king of Mitanni sent him a statue
of the goddess Shaushka (Ishtar) of Nineveh that was reputed to
cure diseases. A more or less permanent border between Egypt and
Mitanni seems to have existed near Qatna on the Orontes River;
Ugarit was part of Egyptian territory.
The
reason Mitanni sought peace with Egypt may have been trouble with
the Hittites. A Hittite king called Tudhaliya conducted campaigns
against Kizzuwatna, Arzawa, Ishuwa, Aleppo, and maybe against
Mitanni itself. Kizzuwatna may have fallen to the Hittites at
that time.
Artashumara
and Tushratta :
![](Cuneiform_letter_to_Amenhotep_III.jpg)
Cuneiform
tablet containing a letter from Tushratta of Mitanni to Amenhotep
III (of 13 letters of King Tushratta). British Museum
Artashumara followed his father Shuttarna II on the throne, but
was murdered by a certain UD-hi, or Uthi. It is uncertain what
intrigues that followed, but UD-hi then placed Tushratta, another
son of Shuttarna, on the throne. Probably, he was quite young
at the time and was intended to serve as a figurehead only. However,
he managed to dispose of the murderer, possibly with the help
of his Egyptian father-in-law, but this is sheer speculation.
The
Egyptians may have suspected the mighty days of Mitanni were about
to end. In order to protect their Syrian border zone the new Pharaoh
Akhenaten instead received envoys from the resurgent powers of
the Hittites and Assyria. From the Amarna letters it is known
that Tushratta's desperate claim for a gold statue from Akhenaten
developed into a major diplomatic crisis.
The
unrest weakened the Mitannian control of their vassal states,
and Aziru of Amurru seized the opportunity and made a secret deal
with the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I. Kizzuwatna, which had seceded
from the Hittites, was reconquered by Suppiluliuma. In what has
been called his first Syrian campaign, Suppiluliuma then invaded
the western Euphrates valley, and conquered the Amurru and Nuhasse
in Mitanni.
According
to the later Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty, Suppiluliuma had
made a treaty with Artatama II, a rival of Tushratta. Nothing
is known of this Artatama's previous life or connection, if any,
to the royal family. He is called 'king of the Hurri,' while Tushratta
went by the title 'King of Mitanni.' This must have disagreed
with Tushratta. Suppiluliuma began to plunder the lands on the
west bank of the Euphrates, and annexed Mount Lebanon. Tushratta
threatened to raid beyond the Euphrates if even a single lamb
or kid was stolen. By the reign of Eriba-Adad I (1390–1366
BC) Mitanni influence over Assyria was on the wane. Eriba-Adad
I became involved in a dynastic battle between Tushratta and his
brother Artatama II and after this his son Shuttarna III, who
called himself king of the Hurri while seeking support from the
Assyrians. A pro-Hurri/Assyria faction appeared at the royal Mitanni
court. Eriba-Adad I had thus loosened Mitanni influence over Assyria,
and in turn had now made Assyria an influence over Mitanni affairs.
Suppiluliuma
then recounts how the land of Ishuwa on the upper Euphrates had
seceded in the time of his grandfather. Attempts to conquer it
had failed. In the time of his father, other cities had rebelled.
Suppiluliuma claims to have defeated them, but the survivors had
fled to the territory of Ishuwa, that must have been part of Mitanni.
A clause to return fugitives is part of many treaties between
sovereign states and between rulers and vassal states, so perhaps
the harbouring of fugitives by Ishuwa formed the pretext for the
Hittite invasion.
A
Hittite army crossed the border, entered Ishuwa and returned the
fugitives (or deserters or exile governments) to Hittite rule.
"I freed the lands that I captured; they dwelt in their places.
All the people whom I released rejoined their peoples, and Hatti
incorporated their territories."
The
Hittite army then marched through various districts towards Washukanni.
Suppiluliuma claims to have plundered the area, and to have brought
loot, captives, cattle, sheep and horses back to Hatti. He also
claims that Tushratta fled, though obviously he failed to capture
the capital. While the campaign weakened Mitanni, it did not endanger
its existence.
In
a second campaign, the Hittites again crossed the Euphrates and
subdued Aleppo, Mukish, Niya, Arahati, Apina, and Qatna, as well
as some cities whose names have not been preserved. The booty
from Arahati included charioteers, who were brought to Hatti together
with all their possessions. While it was common practice to incorporate
enemy soldiers in the army, this might point to a Hittite attempt
to counter the most potent weapon of Mitanni, the war-chariots,
by building up or strengthening their own chariot forces.
All
in all, Suppiluliuma claims to have conquered the lands "from
Mount Lebanon and from the far bank of the Euphrates." But
Hittite governors or vassal rulers are mentioned only for some
cities and kingdoms. While the Hittites made some territorial
gains in western Syria, it seems unlikely that they established
a permanent rule east of the Euphrates.
Shattiwaza
/ Kurtiwaza :
![](Cylinder_seal,_ca._1500%961350_BC_Mitanni.jpg)
Cylinder seal, c. 1500 – 1350 BC, Mitanni
A son of Tushratta conspired with his subjects, and killed his
father in order to become king. His brother Shattiwaza was forced
to flee. In the unrest that followed, the Assyrians asserted themselves
under Ashur-uballit I, and he invaded the country; the pretender
Artatama/Atratama II gained ascendancy, followed by his son Shuttarna.
Suppiluliuma claims that "the entire land of Mittanni went
to ruin, and the land of Assyria and the land of Alshi divided
it between them," but this sounds more like wishful thinking.
Although Assyria annexed Mitanni territory, the kingdom survived.
Shuttarna wisely maintained good relations with Assyria, and returned
to it the palace doors of Ashur, that had been taken by Shaushtatar.
Such booty formed a powerful political symbol in ancient Mesopotamia.
The
fugitive Shattiwaza may have gone to Babylon first, but eventually
ended up at the court of the Hittite king, who married him to
one of his daughters. The treaty between Suppiluliuma of Hatti
and Shattiwaza of Mitanni has been preserved and is one of the
main sources on this period. After the conclusion of the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza
treaty, Piyassili, a son of Suppiluliuma, led a Hittite army into
Mitanni. According to Hittite sources, Piyassili and Shattiwaza
crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish, then marched against Irridu
in Hurrian territory. They sent messengers from the west bank
of the Euphrates and seemed to have expected a friendly welcome,
but the people were loyal to their new ruler, influenced, as Suppiluliuma
claims, by the riches of Tushratta. "Why are you coming?
If you are coming for battle, come, but you shall not return to
the land of the Great King!" they taunted. Shuttarna had
sent men to strengthen the troops and chariots of the district
of Irridu, but the Hittite army won the battle, and the people
of Irridu sued for peace.
Meanwhile,
an Assyrian army "led by a single charioteer" marched
on the capital Washukanni. It seems that Shuttarna had sought
Assyrian aid in the face of the Hittite threat. Possibly the force
sent did not meet his expectations, or he changed his mind. In
any case, the Assyrian army was refused entrance, and set instead
to besiege the capital. This seems to have turned the mood against
Shuttarna; perhaps the majority of the inhabitants of Washukanni
decided they were better off with the Hittite Empire than with
their former subjects. In any case, a messenger was sent to Piyassili
and Shattiwaza at Irridu, who delivered his message in public,
at the city gate. Piyassili and Shattiwaza marched on Washukanni,
and the cities of Harran and Pakarripa seem to have surrendered
to them.
While
at Pakarripa, a desolate country where the troops suffered hunger,
they received word of an Assyrian advance, but the enemy never
materialised. The allies pursued the retreating Assyrian troops
to Nilap-ini but could not force a confrontation. The Assyrians
seem to have retreated home in the face of the superior force
of the Hittites.
Shattiwaza
became king of Mitanni, but after Suppililiuma had taken Carchemish
and the land west of the Euphrates, that were governed by his
son Piyassili, Mitanni was restricted to the Khabur River and
Balikh River valleys, and became more and more dependent on their
allies in Hattusa. Some scholars speak of a Hittite puppet kingdom,
a buffer-state against the powerful Assyria.
Assyria
under Ashur-uballit I began to infringe on Mitanni as well. Its
vassal state of Nuzi east of the Tigris was conquered and destroyed.
According to the Hittitologist Trevor R. Bryce, Mitanni (or Hanigalbat
as it was known) was permanently lost to Assyria during the reign
of Mursili III of the Hittites, who was defeated by the Assyrians
in the process. Its loss was a major blow to Hittite prestige
in the ancient world and undermined the young king's authority
over his kingdom.
Shattuara
I :
The royal inscriptions of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari I (c.
1307–1275 BC) relate how the vassal king Shattuara of Mitanni
rebelled and committed hostile acts against Assyria. How this
Shattuara was related to the dynasty of Partatama is unclear.
Some scholars think that he was the second son of Artatama II,
and the brother of Shattiwazza's one-time rival Shuttarna. Adad-nirari
claims to have captured King Shattuara and brought him to Ashur,
where he took an oath as a vassal. Afterwards, he was allowed
to return to Mitanni, where he paid Adad-nirari regular tribute.
This must have happened during the reign of the Hittite King Mursili
II, but there is no exact date.
Wasashatta
:
Despite Assyrian strength, Shattuara's son Wasashatta attempted
to rebel. He sought Hittite help, but that kingdom was preoccupied
with internal struggles, possibly connected with the usurpation
of Hattusili III, who had driven his nephew Urhi-Teshup into exile.
The Hittites took Wasashatta's money but did not help, as Adad-nirari's
inscriptions gleefully note.
The
Assyrians expanded further, and conquered the royal city of Taidu,
and took Washukanni, Amasakku, Kahat, Shuru, Nabula, Hurra and
Shuduhu as well. They conquered Irridu, destroyed it utterly and
sowed salt over it. The wife, sons and daughters of Wasashatta
were taken to Ashur, together with much booty and other prisoners.
As Wasashatta himself is not mentioned, he must have escaped capture.
There are letters of Wasashatta in the Hittite archives. Some
scholars think he became ruler of a reduced Mitanni state called
Shubria.
While
Adad-nirari I conquered the Mitanni heartland between the Balikh
and the Khabur from the Hittites, he does not seem to have crossed
the Euphrates, and Carchemish remained part of the Hittite kingdom.
With his victory over Mitanni, Adad-nirari claimed the title of
Great King (sharru rabû) in letters to the Hittite rulers.
Shattuara
II :
In the reign of Shalmaneser I (1270s–1240s) King Shattuara
of Mitanni, a son or nephew of Wasahatta, rebelled against the
Assyrian yoke with the help of the Hittites and the nomadic Ahlamu
(Arameans) around 1250 BC. His army was well prepared; they had
occupied all the mountain passes and waterholes, so that the Assyrian
army suffered from thirst during their advance.
Nevertheless,
Shalmaneser I won a crushing victory for Assyria over the Hittites
and Mitanni. He claims to have slain 14,400 men; the rest were
blinded and carried away. His inscriptions mention the conquest
of nine fortified temples; 180 Hurrian cities were "turned
into rubble mounds," and Shalmaneser "slaughtered like
sheep the armies of the Hittites and the Ahlamu his allies."
The cities from Taidu to Irridu were captured, as well as all
of mount Kashiar to Eluhat and the fortresses of Sudu and Harranu
to Carchemish on the Euphrates. Another inscription mentions the
construction of a temple to the Assyrian god Adad/Hadad in Kahat,
a city of Mitanni that must have been occupied as well.
Hanigalbat
as an Assyrian province :
A part of the population was deported and served as cheap labour.
Administrative documents mention barley allotted to "uprooted
men," deportees from Mitanni. For example, the Assyrian governor
of the city Nahur, Meli-Sah, received barley to be distributed
to deported persons from Shuduhu "as seed, food for their
oxen and for themselves." The Assyrians built a line of frontier
fortifications against the Hittites on the Balikh River.
Mitanni
was now ruled by the Assyrian grand-vizier Ili-padâ, a member
of the royal family, who took the title of king (sharru) of Hanigalbat.
He resided in the newly built Assyrian administrative centre at
Tell Sabi Abyad, governed by the Assyrian steward Tammitte. Assyrians
maintained not only military and political control, but seem to
have dominated trade as well, as no Hurrian or Mitanni names appear
in private records of Shalmaneser's time.
Under
the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (c. 1243–1207 BC) there
were again numerous deportations from Hanigalbat (east Mitanni)
to Ashur, probably in connection with the construction of a new
palace. As the royal inscriptions mention an invasion of Hanigalbat
by a Hittite king, there may have been a new rebellion, or at
least native support of a Hittite invasion. The Mitanni towns
may have been sacked at this time, as destruction levels have
been found in some excavations that cannot be dated with precision,
however. Tell Sabi Abyad, seat of the Assyrian government in Mitanni
in the times of Shalmaneser, was deserted between 1200 and 1150
BC.
In
the time of Ashur-nirari III (c. 1200 BC, the beginning Bronze
Age collapse), the Phrygians and others invaded and destroyed
the Hittite Empire, already weakened by defeats against Assyria.
Some parts of Assyrian-ruled Hanigalbat was temporarily lost to
the Phrygians also; however, the Assyrians defeated the Phrygians
and regained these colonies. The Hurrians still held Katmuhu and
Paphu. In the transitional period to the Early Iron Age, Mitanni
was settled by invading Aramaeans.
Indo-Aryan
superstrate :
Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni
exhibit close similarities to Indo-Aryan, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan
elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course
of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites
and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya
(Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes
technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza
(pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana
(vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one"
is of particular importance because it places the superstrate
in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian
or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general.
Another
text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara
(pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the
solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient
world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior
in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= mi??ha,~ Sanskrit
mi?ha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)."
Sanskritic
interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara)
as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/?ta," Biridashva (biridaš?a,
biriiaš?a) as Pritasva "whose horse is dear," Priyamazda
(priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear," Citrarata
as citraratha "whose chariot is shining," Indaruda/Endaruta
as Indrota "helped by Indra," Shativaza (šatti?aza)
as Sativaja "winning the race price," Šubandhu
as Subandhu "having good relatives," Tushratta (t?išeratta,
tušratta, etc.) as *t?aiašaratha "whose chariot
is vehement."
Recently,
a reference to the word mariannu was found in a letter from Tell
Leilan in Northern Syria dating to a period slightly before 1761
BCE, in which date the reign of Zimri-Lim ended in the region
of Mari, according to Kroonen et al. this may be considered as
an early Indo-Aryan linguistic presence in Syria two centuries
prior to the formation of the Mitanni realm, as mariannu can be
seen as a Hurrianized form of Indo-Aryan *marya, which means man
or youth, associated to military affairs and chariots.
Mitanni
rulers :
All
dates must be taken with caution since they are worked out only
by comparison with the chronology of other ancient Near Eastern
nations.
Ruler |
Particulars |
Kirta
|
Length of reign
: c. 1500 BC (short)
Comments
: --- |
Shuttarna
I |
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Son
of Kirta. |
Parshatatar
or Parrattarna |
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Son
of Kirta. |
Shaushtatar
|
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Contemporary
of Idrimi of Alalakh, sacks Ashur. |
Artatama
I |
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Treaty
with Pharaoh Thutmose IV of Egypt, Contemporary
of Pharaoh Amenhotep II of Egypt. |
Shuttarna
II |
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Daughter
marries Pharaoh Amenhotep III of Egypt in his year
10. |
Artashumara
|
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Son
of Shutarna II, brief reign. |
Tushratta
|
Length of reign
: c.
1350 BC (short)
Comments
:
Contemporary
of Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites and Pharaohs Amenhotep
III and Amenhotep IV of Egypt, Amarna letters.
|
Artatama
II |
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Treaty
with Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites, ruled same
time as Tushratta. |
Shuttarna
III |
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Contemporary
of Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites. |
Shattiwaza
or Kurtiwaza |
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Mitanni
becomes vassal of the Hittite Empire. |
Shattuara
|
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Mittani
becomes vassal of Assyria under Adad-nirari I.
|
Wasashatta
|
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Son
of Shattuara. |
Shattuara
II |
Length of reign
: ---
Comments
:
Last
king of Mitanni before Assyrian conquest.
|
|
Legacy
:
Within a few centuries of the fall of Washukanni to Assyria, Mitanni
became fully Assyrianized and linguistically Aramaized, and use
of the Hurrian language began to be discouraged throughout the
Neo-Assyrian Empire. However, Urartean, a dialect closely related
to Hurrian seems to have survived in the new state of Urartu,
in the mountainous areas to the north in their Armenian Highlands.
In the 10th to 9th century BC inscriptions of Adad-nirari II and
Shalmaneser III, Hanigalbat is still used as a geographical term.
In
2010, the 3,400-year-old ruins of Kemune, a Bronze Age Mitanni
palace on the banks of the Tigris in modern-day Iraqi Kurdistan,
were discovered. It became possible to excavate the ruins in 2019
when a drought caused water levels to drop considerably.
Source
:
https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Mitanni