SUSA
![](susa.jpg)
Susa,
Iran
![](640px-King%27s_apartments_Apadana_Susa.jpg)
The
Palace of Darius I in Susa
Location
: Shush, Khuzestan Province, Iran
Region : Zagros Mountains
Coordinates : 32°11'26 N 48°15'28 E
Type : Settlement
History
Founded : Approximately 4200 BCE
Abandoned : 1218 CE
Events : Battle of Susa
Site notes
Condition : Abandoned and in ruins
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name : Susa
Criteria Cultural : i, ii, iii, iv
Reference : 1455
Inscription : 2015 (39th session)
Susa
(Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform: šušinki; Persian: Šuš;
Hebrew: Šušan; Old Persian: Çuša) was an ancient
city in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km (160 mi) east of
the Tigris River, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers. One of the
most important cities of the Ancient Near East, Susa served as the
capital of Elam and the Achaemenid Empire, and remained a strategic
centre during the Parthian and Sasanian periods.
The
site currently consists of three archaeological mounds, covering
an area of around one square kilometre. The modern Iranian town
of Shush is located on the site of ancient Susa. Shush is identified
as Shushan, mentioned in the Book of Esther and other Biblical books.
Name
:
In Elamite, the name of the city was written variously Susan, Susun,
etc. The origin of the word Susa is from the local city deity Inshushinak.
Literary
references :
![](555px-Elam_Map-en.svg.png)
Map
showing the area of the Elamite kingdom (in orange) and the neighboring
areas. The approximate Bronze Age extension of the Persian Gulf
is shown
Susa was one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East.
In historic literature, Susa appears in the very earliest Sumerian
records: for example, it is described as one of the places obedient
to Inanna, patron deity of Uruk, in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratt.
Biblical
texts :
Susa is also mentioned in the Ketuvim of the Hebrew Bible by the
name Shushan, mainly in Esther, but also once each in Nehemiah and
Daniel. According to these texts, Nehemiah also lived in Susa during
the Babylonian captivity of the 6th century BCE (Daniel mentions
it in a prophetic vision), while Esther became queen there, married
to King Ahasuerus, and saved the Jews from genocide. A tomb presumed
to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known as Shush-Daniel.
However, a large portion of the current structure is actually a
much later construction dated to the late nineteenth century, ca.
1871.
Other
Religious texts :
Susa is further mentioned in the Book of Jubilees (8:21 & 9:2)
as one of the places within the inheritance of Shem and his eldest
son Elam; and in 8:1, "Susan" is also named as the son
(or daughter, in some translations) of Elam.
Excavation
history :
![](640px-Susa_map.jpg)
Site
of Susa
![](621px-S03_06_01_017_image_2344.jpg)
Assyria.
Ruins of Susa, Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
The site was examined in 1836 by Henry Rawlinson and then by A.
H. Layard.
In
1851, some modest excavation was done by William Loftus, who identified
it as Susa.
In
1885 and 1886 Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and Jane Dieulafoy began
the first French excavations. Almost all of the excavations at Susa,
post 1885, were organized and authorized by the French Monarchy.
Jacques
de Morgan conducted major excavations from 1897 until 1911. The
excavations that were conducted in Susa brought many artistic and
historical artifacts back to France. These artifacts filled multiple
halls in the Museum of the Louvre throughout the late 1890s and
early 1900s. These efforts continued under Roland De Mecquenem until
1914, at the beginning of World War I. French work at Susa resumed
after the war, led by De Mecquenem, continuing until World War II
in 1940. To supplement the original publications of De Mecquenem
the archives of his excavation have now been put online thanks to
a grant from the Shelby White Levy Program.
Roman
Ghirshman took over direction of the French efforts in 1946, after
the end of the war. Together with his wife Tania Ghirshman, he continued
there until 1967. The Ghirshmans concentrated on excavating a single
part of the site, the hectare sized Ville Royale, taking it all
the way down to bare earth. The pottery found at the various levels
enabled a stratigraphy to be developed for Susa.
During
the 1970s, excavations resumed under Jean Perrot.
History
:
Early settlement :
In urban history, Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of
the region. Based on C14 dating, the foundation of a settlement
there occurred as early as 4395 BCE (a calibrated radio-carbon date).
At this stage it was already very large for the time, [citation
needed] about 15 hectares.
The
founding of Susa corresponded with the abandonment of nearby villages.
Potts suggests that the settlement may have been founded to try
to reestablish the previously destroyed settlement at Chogha Mish.
Previously, Chogha Mish was also a very large settlement, and it
featured a similar massive platform that was later built at Susa.
Another
important settlement in the area is Chogha Bonut, that was discovered
in 1976.
Susa
I period (4200 - 3800 BCE) :
![](640px-Iran_%E9poque_d%27Obeid_S%E8vres.jpg)
Goblet
and cup, Iran, Susa I style, 4th millennium BC – Ubaid period;
goblet height c. 12 cm; Sèvres – Cité de la
céramique, France
Shortly after Susa was first settled over 6000 years ago, its inhabitants
erected a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding
landscape. The exceptional nature of the site is still recognizable
today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as
offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple
platform.
Susa's
earliest settlement is known as Susa I period (c. 4200–3900
BCE). Two settlements named by archaeologists Acropolis (7 ha) and
Apadana (6.3 ha), would later merge to form Susa proper (18 ha).
The Apadana was enclosed by 6m thick walls of rammed earth (this
particular place is named Apadana because it also contains a late
Achaemenid structure of this type).
Nearly
two thousand pots of Susa I style were recovered from the cemetery,
most of them now in the Louvre. The vessels found are eloquent testimony
to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and
they hold clues about the organization of the society that commissioned
them. Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style
are a late, regional version of the Mesopotamian Ubaid ceramic tradition
that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium BC.
Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences
from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western
Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a
drinking goblet or beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar—implies
the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be
as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics
of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion
of the vessels from the cemetery.
Others
are coarse cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted
on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler
citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children. The pottery
is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed,
the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing
of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was
done freehand.
Copper
metallurgy is also attested during this period, which was contemporary
with metalwork at some highland Iranian sites such as Tepe Sialk.
![](462px-Louvre_Suse_I_Boisseau_d%E9cor_g%E9om%E9trique_1_14012018.jpg)
Louvre
Suse I Boisseau décor géométrique
![](648px-Louvre_Suse_I_N%E9cropole_du_tell_de_l%27Acropole_Coupe_d%E9cor_g%E9om%E9trique_1_14012018.jpg)
Louvre Suse I Nécropole du tell de l'Acropole Coupe
décor géométrique
Master
of animals, Susa I, Louvre Sb 2246
![](628px-Sun_and_deities,_Susa_I.jpg)
Sun
and deities, Susa I, Louvre
Susa
II and Uruk influence (3800 - 3100 BCE) :
![](422px-Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg)
Globular
envelope with the accounting tokens. Clay, Uruk period (c. 3500
BCE). From the Tell of the Acropolis in Susa. The Louvre
Susa
came within the Uruk cultural sphere during the Uruk period. An
imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk, proto-writing,
cylinder seals with Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture
is found at Susa. According to some scholars, Susa may have been
a colony of Uruk.
There
is some dispute about the comparative periodization of Susa and
Uruk at this time, as well as about the extent of Uruk influence
in Susa. Recent research indicates that Early Uruk period corresponds
to Susa II period.
Click
here to view uruk in Sumerian mythology.
Click
here to view uruk in mahabharat.
King-priest
with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple in the center. Susa
II or Uruk period (3800-3100 BCE), found in excavations at Susa.
Louvre Museum
D. T. Potts, argue that the influence from the highland Iranian
Khuzestan area in Susa was more significant at the early period,
and also continued later on. Thus, Susa combined the influence of
two cultures, from the highland area and from the alluvial plains.
Also, Potts stresses the fact that the writing and numerical systems
of Uruk were not simply borrowed in Susa wholesale. Rather, only
partial and selective borrowing took place, that was adapted to
Susa's needs. Despite the fact that Uruk was far larger than Susa
at the time, Susa was not its colony, but still maintained some
independence for a long time, according to Potts. An architectural
link has also been suggested between Susa, Tal-i Malyan, and Godin
Tepe at this time, in support of the idea of the parallel development
of the protocuneiform and protoelamite scripts.
Some
scholars believe that Susa was part of the greater Uruk culture.
Holly Pittman, an art historian at the University of Pennsylvania
in Philadelphia says, "they [Susanians] are participating entirely
in an Uruk way of life. They are not culturally distinct; the material
culture of Susa is a regional variation of that on the Mesopotamian
plain". Gilbert Stein, director of the University of Chicago's
Oriental Institute, says that "An expansion once thought to
have lasted less than 200 years now apparently went on for 700 years.
It is hard to think of any colonial system lasting that long. The
spread of Uruk material is not evidence of Uruk domination; it could
be local choice".
![](606px-Susa_II,_work_in_the_granaries_(composite).jpg)
Work in the granaries, Susa II, Louvre
![](592px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg)
Priest-King
with bow and arrows, Susa II, Louvre
![](567px-Susa_II,_prisoners.jpg)
Prisoners,
Susa II, Louvre
![](600px-Orant_statuette-Sb_69-P5280684-gradient.jpg)
Orant
statuette, Susa II, Louvre
Susa
III, or "Proto-Elamite", period (3100–2700 BCE)
:
Susa III (3100–2700 BCE) is also known as the 'Proto-Elamite'
period. At this time, Banesh period pottery is predominant. This
is also when the Proto-Elamite tablets first appear in the record.
Subsequently, Susa became the centre of Elam civilization.
Ambiguous
reference to Elam (Cuneiform; NIM) appear also in this period in
Sumerian records. Susa enters history during the Early Dynastic
period of Sumer. A battle between Kish and Susa is recorded in 2700
BCE, when En-me-barage-si is said to have "made the land of
Elam submit".
![](640px-Susa_III_or_Proto-Elamite_cylinder_seal_3150-2800_BC_Louvre_Museum_Sb_6166.jpg)
Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal, 3150–2800 BC.
Louvre Museum, reference Sb 1484
![](640px-Susa_III_or_Proto-Elamite_cylinder_seal_3150-2800_BC_Mythological_being_on_a_boat_Louvre_Museum_Sb_6379.jpg)
Susa
III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Mythological
being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379
![](640px-Susa_III_or_Proto-Elamite_cylinder_seal_3150-2800_BC_Louvre_Museum_Sb_6166.jpg)
Susa
III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Louvre Museum
Sb 6166
![](640px-P1180316_Louvre_Suse_III_tablette_%E9conomique_Sb15200_rwk.jpg)
Economical
tablet in Proto-Elamite script, Suse III, Louvre Museum, reference
Sb 15200, circa 3100-2850 BCE
Elamites
:
![](656px-Puzur-Inshushinak_Ensi_Shushaki_in_the__Table_au_Lion_,_Louvre_Museum.jpg)
Puzur-Inshushinak
Ensi Shushaki, "Puzur-Inshushinak Ensi (Governor) of Susa",
in the "Table au Lion", dated 2100 BCE, Louvre Museum
In the Sumerian period, Susa was the capital of a state called Susiana
(Šušan), which occupied approximately the same territory
of modern Khuzestan Province centered on the Karun River. Control
of Susiana shifted between Elam, Sumer, and Akkad. Susiana is sometimes
mistaken as synonymous with Elam but, according to F. Vallat, it
was a distinct cultural and political entity.
During
the Elamite monarchy, many riches and materials were brought to
Susa from the plundering of other cities. This was mainly due to
the fact of Susa's location on Iran's South Eastern region, closer
to the city of Babylon and cities in Mesopotamia.
The
use of the Elamite language as an administrative language was first
attested in texts of ancient Ansan, Tall-e Mal-yan, dated 1000 BCE.
Previous to the era of Elamites, the Akkadian language was responsible
for most or all of the text used in ancient documents. Susiana was
incorporated by Sargon the Great into his Akkadian Empire in approximately
2330 BCE.
![](Elam_cool.jpg)
Silver cup from Marvdasht, Iran, with a linear-Elamite inscription
from the time of Kutik-Inshushinak. National Museum of Iran
The main goddess of the city was Nanaya, who had a significant temple
in Susa.
Old
Elamite period (c. 2700 – 1500 BCE) :
![](614px-Dynastic_list_Awan_Siwashi_Louvre_Sb17729.jpg)
![](559px-Awan_Kings_List_Sb_17729_(transcription).jpg)
Dynastic list of twelve kings of Awan dynasty and twelve
kings of the Shimashki Dynasty, 1800–1600 BCE, Susa, Louvre
Museum Sb 17729
The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BCE. Historical records
mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi, the Sumerian king
of Kish in Mesopotamia. Three dynasties ruled during this period.
Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of Awan (or
Avan; c. 2400–2100 BCE) and Simashki (c. 2100–1970 BC),
are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period.
Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over
parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi; and
likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum
of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab, are recorded as temporarily
dominating Elam.
Kutik-Inshushinak
:
Susa was the capital of an Akkadian province until ca. 2100 BCE,
when its governor, Kutik-Inshushinak, rebelled and made it an independent
state and a literary center. Also, he was the last from the Awan
dynasty according to the Susa kinglist. He unified the neighbouring
territories and became the king of Elam. He encouraged the use of
the Linear Elamite script, that remains undeciphered.
The
city was subsequently conquered by the neo-Sumerian Third Dynasty
of Ur and held until Ur finally collapsed at the hands of the Elamites
under Kindattu in ca. 2004 BCE. At this time, Susa became an Elamite
capital under the Epartid dynasty.
Indus-Susa
relations (2600 - 1700 BCE) :
Numerous artifacts of Indus Valley Civilization origin have been
found in Susa from this period, especially seals and etched carnelian
beads, pointing to Indus-Mesopotamia relations during this period.
![](635px-Susa_seal_with_Indus_signs.jpg)
Impression of an Indus cylinder seal discovered in Susa, in strata
dated to 2600-1700 BCE. Elongated buffalo with line of standard
Indus script signs. Tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference
Sb 2425. Indus script numbering convention per Asko Parpola.
![](640px-Indus_round_seal_with_impression_Elongated_buffalo_with_Harappan_scrpit_imported_to_Susa_in_2600-1700_BCE_LOUVRE_Sb5614.jpg)
Indus
round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan script
imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found in the tell of the Susa
acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 5614
![](640px-Indus_carnelian_beads_with_white_design_imported_to_Susa_in_2600-1700_BCE_LOUVRE_Sb_13099.jpg)
Indian
carnelian beads with white design, etched in white with an alkali
through a heat process, imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found
in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751.
These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus
Civilization site of Dholavira.
![](556px-Indus_bracelet_made_of_Fasciolaria_Trapezium_or_Xandus_Pyrum_imported_front_and_back_with_inscribed_chevron_to_Susa_in_2600-1700_BCE_LOUVRE_Sb144.jpg)
Indus
bracelet, front and back, made of Pleuroploca trapezium or Turbinella
pyrum imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found in the tell of the
Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473. This type of
bracelet was manufactured in Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and Balakot. The
back is engraved with an oblong chevron design which is typical
of shell bangles of the Indus Civilization.
![](559px-Indus_Valley_Civilization_carnelian_beads_excavated_in_Susa.jpg)
Indus
Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa
![](527px-Jewelry_with_components_from_the_Indus,_Central_Asia_and_Northern-eastern_Iran_found_in_Susa_dated_to_2600-1700_BCE.jpg)
Jewelry
with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern
Iran found in Susa dated to 2600-1700 BCE
Middle
Elamite period (c. 1500 – 1100 BCE) :
![](Susa,_Middle-Elamite_basrelief_of_warrior_gods_1600-1100_BCE.jpg)
Middle-Elamite
basrelief of warrior gods, Susa, 1600-1100 BCE
Around 1500 BCE, the Middle Elamite period began with the rise of
the Anshanite dynasties. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation"
of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan
and Susa". While, previously, the Akkadian language was frequently
used in inscriptions, the succeeding kings, such as the Igihalkid
dynasty of c. 1400 BCE, tried to use Elamite. Thus, Elamite language
and culture grew in importance in Susiana.
This
was also the period when the Elamite pantheon was being imposed
in Susiana. This policy reached its height with the construction
of the political and religious complex at Chogha
Zanbil, 30 km (19 mi) south-east of Susa.
In
ca. 1175 BCE, the Elamites under Shutruk-Nahhunte plundered the
original stele bearing the Code of Hammurabi and took it to Susa.
Archeologists found it in 1901. Nebuchadnezzar I of the Babylonian
empire plundered Susa around fifty years later.
![](640px-Goatfishes_Louvre_Sb19.jpg)
An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle
Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the
tails of fish, Susa, 1500–1110 BCE
![](640px-Tchogha_Zanbil.jpg)
The
Ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil was built by Elamite king Untash-Napirisha
circa 1300 BCE
![](Susa,_Middle-Elamite_model_of_a_sun_ritual,_circa_1150_BCE.jpg)
Susa,
Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BCE
Neo-Elamite
period (c. 1100 – 540 BCE) :
Neo-Assyrians :
In 647 BCE, Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal leveled the city during
a war in which the people of Susa participated on the other side.
A tablet unearthed in 1854 by Austen Henry Layard in Nineveh reveals
Ashurbanipal as an "avenger", seeking retribution for
the humiliations that the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians
over the centuries :
"Susa,
the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries,
I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where
silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed. . . .I destroyed
the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced
the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered
to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated,
I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the
land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and, on their
lands, I sowed salt."
Assyrian
rule of Susa began in 647 BCE and lasted till Median capture of
Susa in 617 BCE.
Susa
after Achaemenid Persian Conquest :
![](509px-National_Meusem_Darafsh_6_(42).jpg)
Statue
of Darius the Great, National Museum of Iran
![](476px-Archers_frieze_Darius_1st_Palace_Suse_Louvre_AOD_488_a.jpg)
Archers
frieze from Darius' palace at Susa. Detail of the beginning of the
frieze
![](487px-Darius_I_statue_list_of_subject_countries.jpg)
The
24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius,
on the Statue of Darius I
Susa underwent a major political and ethnocultural transition when
it became part of the Persian Achaemenid empire between 540 and
539 BCE when it was captured by Cyrus the Great during his conquest
of Elam (Susiana), of which Susa was the capital. The Nabonidus
Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered
cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into
the capital, suggesting that the conflict over Susa had begun possibly
in the winter of 540 BCE.
It
is probable that Cyrus negotiated with the Babylonian generals to
obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation.
Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the
capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years. Cyrus' conquest
of Susa and the rest of Babylonia commenced a fundamental shift,
bringing Susa under Persian control for the first time.
Under
Cyrus' son Cambyses II, Susa became a center of political power
as one of 4 capitals of the Achaemenid Persian empire, while reducing
the significance of Pasargadae as the capital of Persis. Following
Cambyses' brief rule, Darius the Great began a major building program
in Susa and Persepolis,which included building a large palace. During
this time he describes his new capital in the DSf inscription :
"This
palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought.
Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When
the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some
40 cubits in depth, another part 20 cubits in depth. On that rubble
the palace was constructed." Susa continued as a winter capital
and residence for Achaemenid kings succeeding Darius the Great,
Xerxes I, and their successors.
The
city forms the setting of The Persians (472 BCE), an Athenian tragedy
by the ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus that is the oldest surviving
play in the history of theatre.
Events
mentioned in the Old Testament book of Esther are said to have occurred
in Susa during the Achaemenid period.
Seleucid
period :
![](The_weddings_at_Susa,_Alexander_to_Stateira_and_Hephaistion_to_Drypetis_(late_19th_century_engraving).jpg)
The
marriages of Stateira II to Alexander the Great of Macedon and her
sister, Drypteis, to Hephaestion at Susa in 324 BCE, as depicted
in a late-19th-century engraving
Susa lost much of its importance after the invasion of Alexander
the Great of Macedon in 331 BCE. In 324 BCE he met Nearchus here,
who explored the Persian Gulf [citation needed] as he returned from
the Indus River by sea. In that same year Alexander celebrated in
Susa with a mass wedding between the Persians and Macedonians.
The
city retained its importance under the Seleucids for approximately
one century after Alexander, however Susa lost its position of imperial
capital to Seleucia to become the regional capital of the satrapy
of Susiana. Nevertheless, Susa retained its economic importance
to the empire with its vast assortment of merchants conducting trade
in Susa, using Charax Spasinou as its port.
Seleucus
I Nicator minted coins there in substantial quantities. Susa is
rich in Greek inscriptions, [citation needed] perhaps indicating
a significant number of Greeks living in the city. Especially in
the royal city large, well-equipped peristyle houses have been excavated.
Parthian
period :
Around 147 BCE Susa and the adjacent Elymais broke free from the
Seleucid Empire. The city was at least temporarily ruled by the
rulers of the Elymais with Kamnaskires II Nikephoros minting coins
there. The city may again have briefly returned to Seleucid rule,
but starting with Phraates II (about 138–127 BCE) to Gotarzes
II (about 40–51 CE) almost all rulers of the Parthian Empire
coined coins in the city, indicating that it was firmly in the hands
of the Parthians at least during this period. The city however retained
a considerable amount of independence and retained its Greek city-state
organization well into the ensuing Parthian period. From second
half of the first century it was probably partly governed by rulers
of Elymais again, but it became Parthian once again in 215.
Susa
was a frequent place of refuge for Parthian and later, the Persian
Sassanid kings, as the Romans sacked Ctesiphon five different times
between 116 and 297 CE. Susa was briefly captured in 116 CE by the
Roman emperor Trajan during the course of his Parthian campaign.
Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east.
Sassanid
period :
Suzan was conquered and destroyed in 224 CE by the Sassanid Ardashir
I, but rebuilt immediately thereafter, and perhaps even temporarily
a royal residence. According to a later tradition, Shapur I is said
to have spent his twilight years in the city, although this tradition
is uncertain and perhaps refers more to Shapur II.
Under
the Sassanids, following the founding of Gundeshapur Susa slowly
lost its importance. Archaeologically, the Sassanid city is less
dense compared to the Parthian period, but there were still significant
buildings, with the settlement extending over 400 hectares. Susa
was also still very significant economically and a trading center,
especially in gold trading. Coins also continued to be minted in
the city. The city had a Christian community in a separate district
with a Nestorian bishop, whose last representative is attested to
in 1265. Archaeologically a stucco panel with the image of a Christian
saint has been found.
During
the reign of Shapur II after Christianity became the state religion
of the Roman Empire in 312, and the identification of Christians
as possible collaborators with the enemy Christians living in the
Sasanian Empire were persecuted from 339 onwards. Shapur II also
imposed a double tax on the Christians during his war campaign against
the Romans. Following a rebellion of Christians living in Susa,
the king destroyed the city in 339 using 300 elephants. He later
had the city rebuilt and resettled with prisoners of war and weavers,
which is believed to have been after his victory over the Romans
in Amida in 359. The weaver produced silk brocade. He renamed it
Eran-Khwarrah-Shapur ("Iran's glory [built by] Shapur").
Islamic
period :
During the Muslim conquest of Persia an Arab army invaded Khuzistan
under the command of Abu Musa al-Ash'ari. After taking most of the
smaller fortified towns the army captured Tustar in 642 before proceeding
to besiege Susa. A place of military importance, it also held the
tomb of the Jewish prophet Daniel.
![](640px-1977_Susa_conference-Iran.jpg)
A group of Western and Iranian Archaeologists at a conference held
in Susa, Khuzestan, Iran in 1977. Henry Wright, William Sumner,
Elizabeth Carter, Genevieve Dolfus, Greg Johnson, Saeid Ganjavi,
Yousef Majidzadeh, Vanden Berghe, ...
Two stories are given in the Muslim sources of how the city fell.
In the first, a Persian priest proclaimed from the walls that only
a dajjal was fated to capture the city. A dajjal is an Islamic term
for an Al-Masih ad-Dajjal, a false messiah, compatible to the Antichrist
in Christianity. In everyday use, it also means "deceiver"
or "imposter". Siyah, a Persian general who had defected
to Muslim side, claimed that by converting to Islam he had turned
his back on Zoroastrianism and was thus a dajjal. Abu Musa agreed
to Siyah's plan. Soon after as the sun came up one morning, the
sentries on the walls saw a man in a Persian officer's uniform covered
in blood lying on the ground before the main gate. Thinking it he
had been left out overnight after a conflict the previous day, they
opened the gate and some came out to collect him. As they approached,
Siyah jumped up and killed them. Before the other sentries had time
to react, Siyah and a small group of Muslim soldiers hidden nearby
charged through the open gate. They held the gate open long enough
for Muslim reinforcements to arrive and passing through the gate
to take the city.
In
the other story, once again the Muslims were taunted from the city
wall that only an Al-Masih ad-Dajjal could capture the city, and
since there were none in the besieging army then they may as well
give up and go home. One of the Muslim commanders was so angry and
frustrated at this taunt that he went up to one of the city gates
and kicked it. Instantly the chains snapped, the locks broke and
it fell open.
Following
their entry into the city, the Muslims killed all of the Persian
nobles.
Once
the city was taken, as Daniel (Arabic: Danyal) was not mentioned
in the Qur'an, nor is he regarded as a prophet in Judaism, the initial
reaction of the Muslim was to destroy the cult by confiscating the
treasure that had stored at the tomb since the time of the Achaemenids.
They then broke open the silver coffin and carried off the mummified
corpse, removing from the corpse a signet ring, which carried an
image of a man between two lions. However, upon hearing what had
happened, the caliph Umar ordered the ring to be returned and the
body reburied under the river bed. In time, Daniel became a Muslim
cult figure and they as well as Christians began making pilgrimages
to the site, despite several other places claiming to be the site
of Daniel's grave.
Following
the capture of Susa, the Muslims moved on to besiege Gundeshapur.
Susa
recovered following its capture and remained a regional center of
more than 400 hectares in size. A mosque was built, but also Nestorian
bishops are still testifie. In addition, there was a Jewish community
with its own synagogue. The city continued to be a manufacturing
center of luxury fabrics during this period. Archaeologically, the
Islamic period is characterized mainly by its rich ceramics. Beth
Huzaye (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province) had a significant Christian
population during the first millennium, and was a diocese of the
Church of the East between the 5th and 13th centuries, in the metropolitan
province of Beth Huzaye (Elam).
In
1218, the city was razed by invading Mongols and was never able
to regain its previous importance. The city further degraded in
the 15th century when the majority of its population moved to Dezful.
Today
:
Today the ancient center of Susa is unoccupied with the population
living in the adjacent modern Iranian town of Shush, which is to
the west and north of the historic ruins. Shush is the administrative
capital of Shush County in Iran's Khuzestan province. It had a population
of 64,960 in 2005. Shush is identified as Shushan, mentioned in
the Book of Esther and other Biblical books.
World
Heritage listing :
In July 2015 it was inscribed on the list of World Heritage Sites
by UNESCO.
Gallery
:
![](640px-ArtabanIIGreekLetter.jpg)
Letter
in Greek of the Parthian king Artabanus II to the inhabitants of
Susa in the 1st century CE (the city retained Greek institutions
since the time of the Seleucid empire). Louvre Museum
![](526px-Rose_cup_Susa_Louvre_MAOS53.jpg)
Glazed
clay cup: Cup with rose petals, 8th–9th centuries
![](510px-Anthropoid_sarcophagus_Louvre_Sb14393.jpg)
Anthropoid
sarcophagus
![](618px-Lion_Darius_Palace_Louvre_Sb3298.jpg)
Lion
on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace
![](614px-Male_head_wearing_a_head-band_resembling_king_of_Syria_Antiochus_III_(223%96187_BC),_late_1st_century_BC%96early_1st_century_AD,_Louvre_Museum_(74628.jpg)
Marble
head representing Seleucid King Antiochus III who was born near
Susa around 242 BC
![](504px-Palmtree_vase_Susa_Louvre_MAOS383.jpg)
Glazed
clay vase: Vase with palmtrees, 8th–9th centuries
![](Sphinx_Darius_Louvre.jpg)
Winged
sphinx from the palace of Darius the Great at Susa
![](450px-Daniel_Barry_Kent.jpg)
Tomb
of Daniel
![](Ninhursag1.jpg)
Ninhursag
with the spirit of the forests next to the seven-spiked cosmic tree
of life. Relief from Susa
![](524px-Tomb_of_Daniel.jpg)
19th-century
engraving of Daniel's tomb in Susa, from Voyage en Perse Moderne,
by Flandin and Coste
![](476px-Archers_frieze_Darius_1st_Palace_Suse_Louvre_AOD_488_a.jpg)
Archers
frieze from Darius' palace at Susa. Detail of the beginning of the
frieze, left. Louvre Museum
![](526px-Torque_Susa_Louvre_Sb2760.jpg)
Ribbed
torc with lion heads, Achaemenid artwork, excavated by Jacques de
Morgan, 1901, found in the Acropole Tomb
![](640px-Shush_Castle.jpg)
Shush
Castle, 2011
![](640px-Children_in_Susa.jpg)
Children
in Susa
![](329px-Terracotta_herm_Louvre_Sb785.jpg)
Herm
pillar with Hermes, from the well of the "Dungeon" in
Susa
Source
:
https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Susa