Avesta
:
The
Avesta is a collection of sacred texts authored in a language which
is very close to the Vedic-Sanskrit. This language, for want of terminology,
is called Avestan. While the Veds focused on Indra and Agni whom the
later texts like the Epics and Purans describe as the Devs, the Avesta
focuses on the teachings of the Asurs (or Ahuras as per Avestan terminology).
A certain Ahura named Ahura Mazda is considered to be the supreme being.
The equivalence of Asur to Ahura is often vehemently denied by certain
sections of European scholarship for reasons known only to them, but
anybody with a Vedic background can easily identify the equivalence
of the Epic-Puranic Asur with the Avestan Ahura. However this equivalence
breaks down in the Veds, since the Veds were authored before historical
emergence of the Dev-Asur ideological split.
Avesta
and the Veds :
Asur
and Ahura :
Avesta
is in agreement with the Veds in certain parts of its philosophy while
in most other cases it is in opposition to the teachings of the Veds.
The word Asur/ Ahura is used in a positive sense both in the Veds and
in the Avesta. Older parts of Rig Ved describes its patron gods like
Indra and Varun as Asurs. However in the younger parts of Rig Ved as
well as in other Veds, Asurs were considered as enemies of the gods.
This situation (Asurs as opposed to the Devs or the gods) is continued
into the post-Vedic literature like the epics (Mahabharat and Ramayan)
and the Puranas.
Dev
and Daeva :
Similar
is the case of the words Dev / Daeva. The word Dev is used to denote
the gods like Indra, Agni and Varuna in the post Vedic literature like
the epics and Puranas. In the Veds, the gods are addressed by their
name and hence the word Dev is seldom used. In the Avesta thw word
'Daeva' is used to denote the demonic forces. The epic-puranic word
Dev and the Avestan Daeva denotes the same people. But the epics and
Puranas use the word 'Dev' in a positive sense, considering the Devs
as benevolent gods, where as the Avesta use the word 'Daeva' in a negative
sense, considering Daevas as malicious gods or as demons. The is is
also the crux of the Dev-Asur ideological split and the historical
core behind the mythological concept of the Dev-Asur war.
Mutual
separation and influences :
It
won't be wrong if we conclude that the patrons of the epics and the
Puranas, were in favor of the Devs while the patrons of the Avesta
were against the Devs. Consequently, the followers of the epic-puranic
traditions were opposed to the Asurs while the followers of the Avestan
traditions were in favor of the Asurs. This inversion of patronage
and this opposition in concepts was never very clear since these people
lived separately in India and Iran, developing their culture and traditions
separately. However this isolation was never perfect. Often there were
exchange of ideas between India and Iran. Consequently there were Asurs
described in the Epics and Puranas in good light such as Mahabali and
Vrishaparvan and there were narrations in the epics and Puranas were
the Devs, especially their leader Indra, described in a bad light.
The
survival of Avesta :
Alexander's
Invasion :
The
oldest parts of Avesta (3000 -2500 BCE) corresponds to the latest parts
of the Veds (4000 - 2500 BCE), in antiquity. It was transmitted through
oral traditions for centuries, but were written down subsequently. Some
of the written documents met with destruction during Alaxander's invasion
(330 BCE) of Persia. All texts of Avesta known today derive from a single
master copy, now lost but known as the "Sassanian archetype".
This copy was the result of the effort of the Sassanian emperor Ardashir
I ( 226-241 CE) and his priest Tonsar who collected and compiled the
remnant texts.
Islamic
Invasions :
In
its current form, Avesta contains 21 BOOKS called nasks subdivided into
348 chapters, with approximately 3.5 million words in total. However
most of these books are only partially available. A major portion of
the text of Avesta is missing. Thus we cannot expect any continuity
or completeness in the study of Avesta, unlike in the study of the four
Veds, the two epics and the 18 Puranas of Indian tradition, which were
preserved with great effort and determination by its adherents against
all odds like Islamic invasions and European rule. What ever information
we have about Avesta was derived from the accounts preserved by the
Parsis who got refuge in India, after fleeing from Iran fearing Islamic
persecution.
In
the words of James Darmesteter, who was among the pioneers to study
and translate Avesta, ".. Avesta is the sacred book of the Parsis,
i.e., of the few remaining followers of that religion which feigned
over Persia at the time when the second successor of Mohammed overthrew
the Sassanian dynasty, and which has been called Dualism, Mazdeism,
Magism, Zoroastrianism or Fire-worship. In less than a century after
their defeat, nearly all the conquered people were brought over to the
faith of Islam, either by force, or policy, or the attractive power
of a simpler form of creed. But many of those who clung to the faith
of their fathers, went and sought abroad for a new home, where they
might freely worship their old gods, say their old prayers, and perform
their old rites. That home they found at last among the tolerant Hindus,
on the western coast of India and in the peninsula of Gujarat. There
they throve and there they live still, while the ranks of their co-religionists
in Persia are daily thinning and dwindling away."
Structure
and Comparisons :
As
we have seen, Avesta is often compared to the Veds. Comparison of Avesta
with the Veds could be misleading, since its scope is wider (lesser
in size, though), as it contains liturgical texts similar to the Veds,
narrative dialogs like in the epics like Mahabharat and Ramayan, creation-myths
like in the Puranas and moral-laws like in Manu-Smriti and Dharmasastras.
However it would be interesting to note its similarities and differences
with the Veds.
Similarities
with Veds :
The
Veds are not a single text but a collection of multiple texts. So is
Avesta. The Veds, as we know today, are divided into Rig, Sam, Yajur
and Atharv texts. So is Avesta divided into different texts. It contains
hymns dedicated to specific gods (Ahuras), creation myths, invocations,
spells against enemies and in favor of friends etc similar to what is
found in the Veds. Much like the Veds, Avesta too is a composition
that emerged taking several centuries. Hence it contains older and younger
parts within it. The different texts of Avesta sometimes overlap, i.e.
they contain repetitions; portions of one text may be found in another
text. This too is a situation similar to the Veds. Hymns of Rig Ved
is repeated in Sama Ved and Yajur Ved.
Differences
with Veds :
All
of the four Veds are in metrical form. However only the oldest portions
of Avesta is in metrical form and the rest are in prose. Whatever Avesta
is now available as prose once had their metrical form. It was lost
due to damages to the Zoroastrian traditions, effected by the Greek
and Islamic invasions. Krishna Dwaipayan Vyas is credited with dividing
the Veds into four, indicating that the fourfold division of the Veds
occurred in remote antiquity. However the division of Avesta into constituent
texts is much more recent, as recent as the days of 18th century European
scholarship of Avesta. Most widely accepted division of Avesta is based
on the European scholar Jean Kellens' s classification. It is a classification
based on topics or subject matter. This topical division has no correlation
with the division of Avesta into 21 BOOKS or nasks.
Jean
Kellen's Classification :
Based
on the classification of Jean Kellen, Avesta is topically divided into
the Yasna, the Visperad, the Vendidad, the Yashts, the Siroza, the Khordeh
Avesta and the Fragments.
Yasna
(Yajna / Yagna) :
72
Chapters :
Yasna
is the Avestan form of Vedic-Sanskrit word Yajna. It means sacrifices
or oblations offered in the form of worship. It is the primary liturgical
collection of Avesta. It consists of 72 Chapters (Ha-iti or Ha). This
number 72 is imprinted on the Zoroastrian culture, so that they never
forget it. The 72 threads of lamb's wool in the Kushti, the sacred thread
worn by Zoroastrians, represent these 72 sections of Yasna.
Gathas
:
17
Chapters of Yasna :
The
core of the Yasna is the Gathas, the oldest and most sacred portion
of the Avesta. It is believed to be composed by Zaratushtra (the chief
priest of Ahura Mazda) himself. The Gathas are in verse, metrical in
nature. The meter of the hymns is historically related to the Vedic
Tristubh-Jagati family of meters. The 17 hymns of the Gathas consist
of 238 verses, of about 1300 lines or 6000 words in total. They were
later incorporated into the 72-chapter of Yasna.
The
17 hymns corresponds to 17 chapters of Yasna. They are identified by
their chapter numbers in the Yasna, and are divided into five major
sections:
Chapters |
Name |
Comment,
Meaning |
Stanzas |
Verses |
Meter |
28–34 |
Ahunavaiti
Gatha |
For
Ahuna Vairya |
100
stanzas |
3
verses |
7+9
syllable meter |
43–46 |
Ushtavaiti
Gatha |
'Having
Happiness' |
66
stanzas |
5
verses |
4+7
syllable meter |
47–50 |
Spenta
Mainyu Gatha |
'Bounteous
Spirit' |
41
stanzas |
4
verses |
4+7
syllable meter |
51 |
Vohu
Khshathra Gatha |
'Good
Dominion' |
22
stanzas |
3
verses |
7+7
syllable meter |
53 |
Vahishto
Ishti Gatha |
'Best
Beloved', |
9
stanzas |
4
verses |
two
of 7+5 and two of 7+7+5 syllables |
Vohu
Kshathra = Vasu Kshatra; Vahishto Ishti = Vasishta Ishti;
Some
of the verses of the Gathas are directly addressed to the Ahura named
Mazda, considered as the Omniscient Creator. These verses, devotional
in character, expound on the divine essences of truth (Asha), the good-mind
(Vohu Manah), and the spirit of righteousness (Spenta Mainyu).
Vohu
Manah = Vasu Manas; Mainyu = Manyu;
Yasna
Haptanghaiti :
7
Chapters of Yasna
Another
part as old as the Gathas, found in the Yasna is the Yasna Haptanghaiti
(Yasna-Hapt-ang-ha-iti: Yajna-Sapt-ang-iki: the seven part Yajna). The
seven parts refers to the seven chapters 35 to 41 of Yasna. It contains
hymns in honour of Ahura Mazda, the Immortals, Fire, Water, and Earth.
Yasna Haptanghaiti is in prose form.
The
Yasna Haptanghaiti are placed (and recited) between Ahunavaiti Gatha
and Ushtavaiti Gatha.
n |
Yasna
Chapter |
Verses |
Comments |
1 |
35 |
10
verses |
"Praise
to Ahura and the Immortals (Amesha Spentas); Prayer for the practice
and diffusion of the faith" |
2 |
36 |
6 |
"To
Ahura and the Fire (Atar)" |
3 |
37 |
5 |
"To
Ahura, the holy Creation, the Fravashis of the Just (Ashavan),
and the Bountiful Immortals (Amesha Spentas) |
4 |
38 |
4 |
"To
the earth and the sacred waters (Apo)" |
5 |
39 |
5 |
"To
the soul of the Kine" |
6 |
40 |
4 |
"Prayers
for Helpers" |
7 |
41 |
6 |
"Prayer
to Ahura as the King, the Life, and the Rewarder" |
The
last verse (41.6) of the last chapter suggests that the seven chapters
represent the ancient Yasna liturgy, around which the other chapters
of the present-day Yasna were later organized. In that verse, the Yasna
Haptanghaiti is personified as "the brave Yasna" and as "the
holy ritual chief".
Other
Parts :
Chapter
42 of Yasna that comes after Yasna Haptanghaiti is considered as a minor
hymn much younger in age. Similarly Chapter 52 that comes in between,
the Gathas viz. Vohu Khshathra Gatha and Vahishto Ishti Gatha is considered
as a minor hymn of much later origin. All the chapters other than the
17 chapters of Gathas and the 7 chapters of the Haptanghaiti are composed
either in a younger form of Avestan language or in a language that imitates
the old Avestan language.
Gathic
Avestan Language :
The
language in which Gathas and Yasna Haptanghaiti are composed, for want
of terminology, is called old Avestan or Gathic-Avestan or simply Gathic.
This language is much close to Vedic-Sanskrit. Thus the Gatha and Yasna
Haptanghaiti are as old as the later part of the development of Veds
(especially Atharva Ved).
Visperad
(Upa-Yajna) :
23
to 24 Chapters :
The
Visperad is a collection of supplements to the Yasna. The name 'Visperad'
is a contraction of Avestan vispe ratavo with an ambiguous meaning.
It could mean prayers to all patrons. The patrons here refers to Ahura
Mazda and the Amesha Spentas (Amesha:immortals; Spentas: bounteous:-
bounteous immortals), the divinites that are identified with specific
aspects of creation, and through whom Ahura Mazda realized the creation,
with his thought. The hymns of Visperad are always recited along with
that of Yasna and never independently. It is especially recited as part
of the six seasonal celebrations called Gahambars. An assistant priest,
(the Raspi or Upa-Yaja) is required in a recitation of Yasna with Visperad.
the chapters of Visperad are called Kardos or Kandas like in Krishna
Yajur Ved.
Vendidad
(Vi-Dev-Datta) :
22
Chapters :
The
Vendidad or Videvdaat, a corruption of Avestan Vi-Daevo-Daata. It means
Given Against the Daevas which in Sanskrit can be termed as Vi-Dev-Datta
or as Prati-Dev-Datta. It is an enumeration of various manifestations
of Daevas, and ways to confound them. The Vendidad includes all of the
19th nask, which is the only nask that has survived in its entirety.
The text consists of 22 chapters called Fargards. These are fragments
arranged as dialogs between Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. The first Fargard
is a dualistic creation myth, followed by the description of a destructive
winter. The second fargard recounts the legend of Yima (the Vedic Yama).
Fargard 19 relates the temptation of Zoroaster, who, when urged by Angra
Mainyu to turn from the good religion, turns instead towards Ahura Mazda.
Other Fargards deals with various subjects like :
Siroza
(Thirty Days) :
The
Siroza meaning thirty days is an enumeration and invocation of the 30
divinities presiding over the days of the month as per the Zoroastrian
calenda). The Siroza exists in two forms, the shorter ("little
Siroza") is a brief enumeration of the divinities with their epithets
in the genitive. The longer ("great Siroza") has complete
sentences and sections.
Khordeh Avesta (Little Avesta) :
The
Khordeh Avesta ("little Avesta") is both a selection of verses
from the other collections, as well as three sub-collections that do
not appear elsewhere. Taken together, the Khordeh Avesta is considered
the prayer book for general laymen use.
Fragments
:
All
material in the Avesta that is not already present in one of the other
categories falls into a "fragments" category. This includes
incomplete texts. There are altogether more than 20 fragment collections,
many of which have no name. These are then named after their owner/collator
or have only a Middle Persian name. Examples are the Nirangistan fragments,
the Pursishniha "questions", the Aogemadaeca "we accept"
a treatise on death; and the Hadokht Nask "volume of the scriptures".
The
Associated Languages :
The
Avesta, as we have seen, is authored in different languages, the oldest
of them being Gathic Avestan. Then comes the Artificial Avestan and
finally the Younger Avestan. These three are counted generally as Avestan
language. Only texts preserved in the Avestan language count as scripture
and are part of the Avesta. Several other secondary works are but crucial
to Zoroastrian theology and scholarship. These languages involve Middle
Persian languages and Pahlavi and finally the New Persian language.
The
most notable among the Middle Persian texts are the Denkard (Acts of
Religion), dating from the 9th century; the Bundahishn (Primordial Creation),
finished in the 11th or 12th century, but containing older material
and the Mainog-i-Khirad (Spirit of Wisdom), a religious conference on
questions of faith. The Arda Viraf Namak (Book of Arda Viraf), is especially
important for its views on death, salvation and life in the hereafter.
Of the post-14th century works in New Persian, only the Sad-dar (Hundred
Doors, or Chapters), and Rivayats (traditional treatises) are of doctrinal
importance. Texts such as Zartushtnamah (Book of Zoroaster) had preserved
many legend and folklore.