MACEDONIA
/ MACEDON
Northern
Greece has been occupied since the Neolithic period by hunters and
shepherds in the mountainous inland regions, and by fishermen along
the coast. Then came the Yamnaya horizon and the arrival of a vast
influx of Indo-European peoples from the Pontic steppe. Initially
they were limited to the banks of the Danube but then they quickly
expanded across what is now Romania and the northern Balkans
region. A climate-induced drought around 1200 BC saw these Balkans
tribes forced into a further migration southwards across the rest
of the Balkans and into Greece. It was a group which became identified
as the Macedonians which claimed the northern mountain area between
east and west coasts, sandwiched by the Epirotes
to the west and Thracians to the east, with Paeonia to the north
and Thessaly to the south.
Legendarily
and culturally the Macedonians have always been counted as being
of Hellenic stock. Descent is claimed from the Dorians who migrated
fully into Mycenaean
Greece in the late thirteenth and early twelfth centuries BC to
create states such as Sparta
and to dominate much of mainland Greece over the course of the subsequent
dark age. Their name is generally thought to mean 'highlander',
which would be entirely appropriate for their mountainous homeland.
Their language formed a dialect that was known as Macednic or Makednic,
which was vaguely related to Aeolic or north-western Greek but was
distinct enough to make it almost unintelligible to Ionic and Doric
speakers.
It
is not known whether they were formed of an offshoot of the main
Dorian influx into Greece, or if they were the last to arrive on
the migratory trail and found the isolation of the mountains more
appealing than having to jostle for position to the south. Herodotus
certainly thought of them as being related to the Dorians. They
drove out Thracians from Mygdonia in the process of settling here,
although the two groups did have many cultural similarities - quite
naturally so, seeing as they were of the same general stock of South-West
Indo-Europeans. They were an aggressive people, perfectly suited
to the more mountainous land in which they settled. While they later
become more Hellenised from the fourth century, the more southerly
Greeks regarded them as being rough and ready, still semi-barbarians.
Greek
legend or oral history - written down centuries later - places the
beginnings of the Macedonian kingdom at about 770 BC. The fact that
there is no claim of a kingdom before that supports the idea that
this region was sparsely populated, and also that the Mycenaeans
were not present in any great numbers to found a (legendary) kingdom
of their own in what Homer termed the land of Emathia. According
to the Chronicon by Eusebius, It was a grandson of Aristomachus
of Sparta who took his followers north to aid an Epirote tribe and
gain half that tribe's territory in thanks. The Macedonians appeared
to enjoy close and friendly relations with the Epirotes from the
very beginning, another group with which they had close cultural
links.
That
culture also bore some similarities with that of their Indo-European
cousins, the Celts, in that they would seemingly fight anyone, especially
each other - not that Classical Greek states were much different
in that respect. Partially symptomatic of a culture that did not
especially set out laws and which did not especially respect any
laws that were set out, Greek history is rife with rebellions, pretenders,
and civil wars, so much so that towards the end of the Hellenic
period they essentially self-destructed their empires, effectively
handing them over to Rome to replace them as the dominant force
in the ancient world.
(Information
by Peter Kessler and Edward Dawson, with additional information
from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Europe Before
History, Kristian Kristiansen, from A Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography and Mythology, William Smith (Ed), from An Historical
Geography of Europe, Norman J G Pounds (Abridged Version), from
The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the
Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, David W Anthony, from
Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, Vol 3, Issue 1,
James Cowles Prichard, from History of Humanity - Scientific and
Cultural Development: From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century
BC (Vol II), Ahmad Hasan Dani, Jean-Pierre Mohen, J L Lorenzo, &
V M Masson (Unesco 1996), and from External Links: Geography, Strabo
(H C Hamilton & W Falconer, London, 1903, Perseus Online Edition),
and Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European
languages in Europe (Nature), and Indo-European Etymological Dictionary,
J Pokorny, and DNA clue to origins of early Greek civilization (BBC
News), and The Greeks really do have near-mythical origins, ancient
DNA reveals (Science), and Macedon (Ancient History Encyclopaedia).)
Temenus
: Legendary son of Aristomachus of Sparta. King
of Argos.
c.770
BC :
Greek myth paints Caranus as the son of Temenus, king of Argos,
who in turn is the son of Aristomachus, the Dorian conqueror of
Laconia (although given dating discrepancies between Caranus and
Aristomachus, it is more likely that he claims descent from the
latter rather than being his actual son).
![Aigai](Macedonia_Aigai01_full.jpg)
The
ruins of Aigai (Aegae, modern Vergina), which was originally within
the 'country of the Illyrians' according to Herodotus but which
became the original capital of the early Macedonian kingdom
According
to the Chronicon by Eusebius, Caranus takes his followers
north to aid the king of the Orestae, who is at war with his neighbours,
the Eordaei. The Orestae (a sub-tribe of the Molossians) occupy
a location in central-northern Greece, immediately north-west of
Mount Olympus and west of the Eordaei.
The king promises Caranus half his territory in return for his successful
aid. The Orestae are indeed successful and the king keeps his promise.
Caranus takes possession of the territory, founding the very beginnings
of the Macedonian kingdom and reigning for thirty years, eventually
dying of old age. He is succeeded by his son. The Macedonians appear
to enjoy close and friendly relations with the Epirotes from the
very beginning.
c.770
- 740 BC :
Caranus
/ Karanus : Son. Macedonian tribal king. Reigned 30 years
c.740
- 729 BC :
Comus
/ Koinos / Coenus : Son. Macedonian tribal king. Reigned
12 years.
c.728
- 700 BC :
Tyrmas
/ Tyrimmas : Son. Macedonian tribal king. Reigned 28 years.
c.700
BC :
The story involving the founding of the kingdom by Caranus is not
the only founding myth for Macedonia. Seemingly in contradiction,
Herodotus also places Perdiccas in that founding role, some three
or four generations after Caranus. However, it is stated that Perdiccas
is one of three brothers who descend from Temenus, so a descent
from Caranus is also possible. Possibly the kingdom of Macedonia
is simply being established on a more organised footing, a transition
from potentially tribal beginnings.
Argead
Kings of Macedonia :
c.700 - 305 BC :
A
Macedonian kingdom only emerged around the end of the eighth century
under the Argead line of kings. According to legend, they migrated
into the region from Argos under the leadership of Caranus, hence
Argead ('of Argos', the kingdom held by Aristomachus, ancestor of
Caranus). Once there they helped the king of the tribal Orestae
to defeat the neighbouring tribe of the Eordaei and were given half
the king's territory in thanks. Perdiccas is also claimed as a founding
figure for the kingdom, but he is given as one of three brothers
who are descended from Temenus, as was Caranus before him, so a
claim of founding (or more probably formalising) the kingdom is
not the contradiction that it may initially appear to be.
The
territory gained from the Orestae must have been the eastern half
of their lands, given the Macedonian kingdom's starting point in
that region at the head and western flank of the Thermaic Gulf.
Three or four generations after Caranus gained a foothold, either
Perdiccas or Argaeus established a capital at Aigai (or Aegae, modern
Vergina, near Veria), which certainly was to the east of both the
Orestae and the Eordaei (both of which were absorbed into the kingdom
in the third century BC), and close to the northernmost point of
the Aegean Sea. The region was in a fertile plain in Lower Macedonia
which was irrigated by two rivers, the Axius and the Haliacmon.
Under Alexander I the kingdom expanded rapidly and, until the fourth
century, occupied an area approximately the same as the modern Greek
province of Macedonia.
(Additional
information by Edward Dawson, from The Histories, Herodotus
(Penguin, 1996), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Iranica,
and Macedon (Ancient History Encyclopaedia).)
c.700
- 678 BC :
Perdiccas
I : First historical king according to Herodotus.
691
BC :
The establishment of the Macedonian state to the north of the Greek
city states seems to upset the political dynamic in the region.
Various groups of Illyrians and Thessalians have been displaced
as a result, so the resultant ravages by Illyrian tribes is probably
not unexpected. The event seems to be a one-off at this time, though.
More serious attacks do not occur until the reign of Argaeus.
678
- 640 BC :
Argaeus
I : Son. Founder of the Argeads. Faced Galaurus' Illyrian
invasion.
At a point during the reign of Argaeus, the Illyrian tribe of the
Taulantii invades the early Macedonian state. At this moment in
time they are amongst the most powerful of Illyrian tribes, but
Argaeus uses his small number of warriors very cleverly alongside
the parthenoi (the Macedonian virgins). The latter are used
in the background to double the Macedonian numbers and threaten
a destructive battle with the enemy. The numerically superior Taulantii
break and flee at the sight of the massed Macedonian 'warriors'.
640
- 602 BC :
Philip
I : Son.
602
BC :
The Illyrian invasions which had begun during the reign of his father
continue during Philip's reign. He resists successive attempts to
invade his small kingdom but is eventually killed by them in battle.
His infant son inherits the kingship.
602
- 576 BC :
Aeropus
I : Son. Infant at accession.
602
- 601 BC :
The Macedonians are dispirited by the continual Illyrian attacks
against them, which have lately been joined by Thracian attacks.
Believing that the presence of their king will strengthen then,
the Macedonian army carries the infant Aeropus into battle. The
attempt works, and the Illyrians and Thracians are finally driven
from the region. The king reigns in apparent peace thereafter.
576
- 547 BC :
Alcetas
I : Son.
547
- 498 BC :
Amyntas
I : Son. Persian vassal for much of reign. Satrap of Skudra.
542
BC :
There
is a period of Persian overlordship, although Amyntas is still able
to enter into an alliance with Hippias, tyrant of Athens. Macedonia
remains a vassal until it manages to break free under the rule of
Alexander I.
c.700
- 678 BC :
Perdiccas
I : First historical king according to Herodotus.
691
BC :
The establishment of the Macedonian state to the north of the Greek
city states seems to upset the political dynamic in the region.
Various groups of Illyrians and Thessalians have been displaced
as a result, so the resultant ravages by Illyrian tribes is probably
not unexpected. The event seems to be a one-off at this time, though.
More serious attacks do not occur until the reign of Argaeus.
678
- 640 BC :
Argaeus
I : Son. Founder of the Argeads. Faced Galaurus' Illyrian
invasion.
At a point during the reign of Argaeus, the Illyrian tribe of the
Taulantii invades the early Macedonian state. At this moment in
time they are amongst the most powerful of Illyrian tribes, but
Argaeus uses his small number of warriors very cleverly alongside
the parthenoi (the Macedonian virgins). The latter are used
in the background to double the Macedonian numbers and threaten
a destructive battle with the enemy. The numerically superior Taulantii
break and flee at the sight of the massed Macedonian 'warriors'.
640
- 602 BC :
Philip
I : Son.
602
BC :
The Illyrian invasions which had begun during the reign of his father
continue during Philip's reign. He resists successive attempts to
invade his small kingdom but is eventually killed by them in battle.
His infant son inherits the kingship.
602
- 576 BC :
Aeropus
I : Son. Infant at accession.
602
- 601 BC :
The Macedonians are dispirited by the continual Illyrian attacks
against them, which have lately been joined by Thracian attacks.
Believing that the presence of their king will strengthen then,
the Macedonian army carries the infant Aeropus into battle. The
attempt works, and the Illyrians and Thracians are finally driven
from the region. The king reigns in apparent peace thereafter.
576
- 547 BC :
Alcetas
I : Son.
547
- 498 BC :
Amyntas
I : Son. Persian vassal for much of reign. Satrap of Skudra.
542
BC :
There
is a period of Persian overlordship, although Amyntas is still able
to enter into an alliance with Hippias, tyrant of Athens. Macedonia
remains a vassal until it manages to break free under the rule of
Alexander I.
513
-512 BC :
Neighbouring Thrace south of the Danube is conquered by the Persians
and is held for about fifty years. This could be the satrapy known
as Skudra into which Macedon is merged during this period. King
Amyntas is its local governor, with this minor satrapy being subjoined
to the great satrapy of Sparda.
498
- 454 BC :
Alexander
I : Son. Built up the kingdom from its tribal origins.
490
BC :
In response to the Athenian support of revolts by Salamis and the
Ionians, Darius I invades mainland Greece, subduing the Thracian
tribes along the way (all except the Satrai, precursors to the Bessoi).
Athens is sacked, but only after its citizens withdraw safely, and
subsequently the invaders are defeated by Athens and Plataea at
the Battle of Marathon in August or September of the year.
![Alexander I silver stater](Macedonia_Coins01_full.jpg)
A
silver stater (or tetrobol) issued by Alexander I between 476-454
BC
480
- 479 BC :
Invading
southern Greece in 480 BC, the Persians are swiftly engaged by Athens
and Sparta in the Vale of Tempe, and then stymied by a mixed force
of Greeks led by Sparta at Thermopylae. While Macedonia is a Persian
vassal, it still supplies the Greek city states with supplies and
information regarding Persian movements.
Athens,
as the leader of the coalition of city states known as the Delian
League, then defeats the Persian navy at Salamis,
and after the Persian king Xerxes returns home, his army is decisively
defeated at the Battle of Plataea and kicked out of Greece, with
many of the survivors of Plataea being killed by Alexander's forces
as they retreat to Asia Minor by land. This defeat also allows the
Macedonians to fully regain a freedom that they may have established
in 490 BC. Colchis,
too, is free by now.
c.479
- 454 BC :
During his reign, Alexander I leads the expansion of the kingdom's
territory into Upper Macedonia, conquering independent Macedonian
tribes such as the Elmiotae (immediately south-west of Aigai) and
the Lyncestae (to the north-west). He also takes other tribal centres
including Eordaia (home to the tribe that had been defeated by Caranus
and the tribal Macedonians in the early eighth century), Bottiaea
(home to a possibly aboriginal people), Pieria (immediately south
of Aigai and bordered on its own south by Pelasgiotis which is either
home to a population of Pelasgians or remembers their former existence
there in its name), Mygdonia (home to Thracians), and Almopia (home
to the Almops).
454
- 448 BC :
Alcetas
II : Son. An alcoholic, he was killed by Archelaus, his
nephew.
454
BC :
The Macedonian kingdom formed by Alexander begins to disintegrate
under his successors. The alcoholism of Alcetas, and the in-fighting
between Perdiccas and Phillipus allows the Macedonian and other
subject tribes regain autonomy. Perdiccas' subsequent reign sees
him involved in the prelude to the Peloponnesian Wars, in
which he frequently switches sides between Athens and Sparta in
their growing conflict. He also fights the Lyncestae tribe and their
Illyrian allies when they oppose him in 424-423 BC but is forced
into a humiliating retreat.
448
- 413 BC :
Perdiccas
II : Brother. Took the throne following the murder of his
brother.
434
BC :
Phillipus
: Brother. Challenged Perdiccas for the throne.
429
BC :
Against the backdrop of the Second Peloponnesian War, Perdiccas
is opposed by Amyntas II, the son of either Phillipus or Menelaus.
He seeks the support of Sitalces, king of the Odrysian Thracians,
but Perdiccas mediates with Seuthes, the son of Sitalces to obtain
peace between the Thracians and Macedonia. Amyntas is forced to
wait for his accession.
413
- 399 BC :
Archelaus
I / Archelaos : Son of Perdiccas. Gained the throne by
murdering all rivals.
413
- 412 BC :
One of the first acts of Archelaus is to stabilise relations with
Athens, supplying it with wood with which to build a new fleet after
its disastrous defeat at Syracuse.
He also stabilises the kingdom, improving its organisation and infrastructure
by building strongholds and roads. By the time of his (possibly
accidental) death during a hunt at the hands of Craterus, one of
the royal pages, Macedonia is a significantly stronger kingdom.
399
BC :
Craterus / Crateuas : Royal page who killed the king. Seized
throne for 4 days.
399
- 396 BC :
Orestes
: Son of Archelaus.
399
- 396 BC :
Aeropus
II : Guardian of Orestes.
396
- 393 BC :
Archelaus II / Archelaos : Brother of Orestes. Patron of
arts & literature. Killed hunting.
393
- 392 BC :
A period of confusion follows the unexpected death of Archelaus
II. The subsequent kings rule for brief periods, with little information
regarding them. The kingdom probably fractures under the strain
of a virtual royal civil war while the neighbouring regions remain
barbarous and untamed.
393
BC :
Amyntas
II : Son of Phillipus or Menelaus, brother of Perdiccas.
393
BC :
Pausanias
: Son of Aeropus II. Assassinated by Amyntas III.
393
BC :
Amyntas
III : Son of Arrhidaeus. Driven out by the Illyrians.
393
BC :
Amyntas III is driven out of the kingdom by the Illyrians who are
assisting the pretender to the Macedonian throne, Argaeus. It takes
the rightful king just a year to regain his throne, with support
from the Thessalians.
393
- 392 BC :
Argaeus
II : Pretender. Probably returned in 359 BC.
392
- 370 BC :
Amyntas
III : Restored. Died of old age.
c.387
- 380 BC :
During the first years of his reign Amyntas III creates a fully
unified Macedonian state which heralds a period of greatness. Around
this time he also establishes good relations with Cotys of the Thracian
Odrysian kingdom which presages even closer relations under Philip
II.
370
- 368 BC :
Alexander
II : Son. Assassinated by Ptolemy I.
368
- 360 BC :
Perdiccas
III : Brother. Forced to accept regent. Killed in battle
by Dardani.
368
- 365 BC :
Ptolemy
I Alorites / of Aloros : Brother-in-law and regent. Killed
by Perdiccas III.
362
BC :
Athens and Sparta, together with the Eleans and the Mantinaeans,
are defeated by the Thebans at the Battle of Mantinea. The battle
is fought on 4 July, with the Thebans being supported by the Arcadians
and the Boeotian League. The Spartan defeat paves the way for Macedonian
supremacy later in the century.
360
BC :
Perdiccas is determined to put an end to the power of Bardylis of
the Illyrian tribe of the Dardani - power to the extent that Perdiccas
has been forced to pay tribute. He leads an army north to confront
him but the Dardani prove too strong for them. The Macedonians are
defeated with around four thousand dead, including the king.
360
- 359 BC :
Amyntas
IV : Infant son of Perdiccas III. Usurped by Philip II.
359
BC :
As soon as Phillip II deposes his infant nephew and claims the throne
for himself, the pretender, Argaeus, attempts to secure the throne
with Athenian support. Philip manages to persuade the Athenians
not to interfere. Argaeus gathers his supporters, along with some
freelance Athenians, and attempts to capture the capital by force
but is repulsed. While retreating back to his headquarters at Methone,
he is ambushed by Philip and defeated. He either dies during the
fighting or is executed afterwards.
359
BC :
Argaeus
(II?) : Possibly the same as the Argaeus of 393 BC.
359
- 336 BC :
Philip
II : Brother of Perdiccas III. Assassinated.
359
BC :
Philip makes an alliance with Cotys of the Thracian Odrysian kingdom.
In the same year he marries Olympias, the niece of King Arybbas
of Epirus. The union is partly to combine resources to ward off
the dangerous Illyrian tribes to the north-west, but it also cements
an alliance between the two kingdoms that helps to forge an empire.
![Phillip II of Macedonia](Macedonia_PhilipII_01_full.jpg)
With
his conquest of Greece and areas of near-Anatolia, Phillip II laid
down the foundations for the Hellenic empire that his son Alexander
would greatly expand upon
352
- 343 BC :
Artabazus II, satrap of Phrygia, falls out with Persian King Artaxerxes
III and takes refuge at the court of Philip II. When Artabazus discovers
Philip's designs to invade Persia, he returns there with his family,
is pardoned, and is enrolled amongst the closest companions of the
great king. His sons are given distinguished commands, with one
son, Ariobarzanes, becoming satrap of part of Persis (at least,
according to Arrian of Nicomedia, who calls him 'satrap' of Persis).
At
the same time, the new ruler of the Odrysian kingdom makes an enemy
of Philip so he undertakes a successful expedition into Thrace,
gaining ascendancy for a time. The Odrysian king subsequently throws
off Macedonian control, so a second expedition in 343 BC - the year
after he subdues the Illyrian Taulantii - gains Philip complete
dominance by 341 BC.
344/343
BC :
Caeria
is an Illyrian queen of unspecified affiliation. Mentioned only
briefly by Polyaenus, she is killed while leading her forces in
battle against another warrior 'queen', Cynane. She is a daughter
of Phillip II of Macedonia by his Illyrian wife, Audata, and half-sister
to Alexander, soon to be 'the great'. Not only is she a proven warrior
in her own right, she also acts in defence of the Macedonian kingdom.
339
BC :
Following
increasing contact with the Scythians,
their King Ateas enlists Macedonian troops to help him in a battle
against the city of Histria on the coastal shores of Thrace. Histria's
king dies suddenly and the Macedonian troops are summarily dismissed
upon their arrival. Further petty insults are traded between Ateas
and Phillip II until the two sides go to war in 339 BC. The battle
takes place on the plains of what is now Dobruja, with Ateas being
killed in action, his army routed, and his kingdom collapsing.
338
- 337 BC :
Philip defeats the Greek states at the Battle of Chaeronea and gains
overlordship over all of Greece, including Athens, Corinth
and Sparta. Athens and other city states join the Corinthian League
(or Hellenic League) which is formed by Phillip to unify the military
forces at his command so that he can pressure Persia. However, Philip
only narrowly escapes death at the hands of Pleurias of the Illyrian
Autariatae state.
336
BC :
The invasion of Persian Anatolia has only just begun when Philip
is assassinated at his capital in October of the year. The court
gathers for the celebration of the marriage between Alexander I
of Epirus and Philip's daughter, during which Philip is killed by
Pausanias of Orestis, one of his seven bodyguards. Pausanias tries
to escape and is pursued by three more of Philip's bodyguards, dying
at their hands.
Neighbouring
Thrace south of the Danube is conquered by the Persians and is held
for about fifty years. This could be the satrapy known as Skudra
into which Macedon is merged during this period. King Amyntas is
its local governor, with this minor satrapy being subjoined to the
great satrapy of Sparda.
498
- 454 BC :
Alexander
I : Son. Built up the kingdom from its tribal origins.
490
BC :
In response to the Athenian support of revolts by Salamis and the
Ionians, Darius I invades mainland Greece, subduing the Thracian
tribes along the way (all except the Satrai, precursors to the Bessoi).
Athens is sacked, but only after its citizens withdraw safely, and
subsequently the invaders are defeated by Athens and Plataea at
the Battle of Marathon in August or September of the year.
![Alexander I silver stater](Macedonia_Coins01_full.jpg)
A
silver stater (or tetrobol) issued by Alexander I between 476-454
BC
480
- 479 BC :
Invading
southern Greece in 480 BC, the Persians are swiftly engaged by Athens
and Sparta in the Vale of Tempe, and then stymied by a mixed force
of Greeks led by Sparta at Thermopylae. While Macedonia is a Persian
vassal, it still supplies the Greek city states with supplies and
information regarding Persian movements.
Athens,
as the leader of the coalition of city states known as the Delian
League, then defeats the Persian navy at Salamis,
and after the Persian king Xerxes returns home, his army is decisively
defeated at the Battle of Plataea and kicked out of Greece, with
many of the survivors of Plataea being killed by Alexander's forces
as they retreat to Asia Minor by land. This defeat also allows the
Macedonians to fully regain a freedom that they may have established
in 490 BC. Colchis,
too, is free by now.
c.479
- 454 BC :
During his reign, Alexander I leads the expansion of the kingdom's
territory into Upper Macedonia, conquering independent Macedonian
tribes such as the Elmiotae (immediately south-west of Aigai) and
the Lyncestae (to the north-west). He also takes other tribal centres
including Eordaia (home to the tribe that had been defeated by Caranus
and the tribal Macedonians in the early eighth century), Bottiaea
(home to a possibly aboriginal people), Pieria (immediately south
of Aigai and bordered on its own south by Pelasgiotis which is either
home to a population of Pelasgians or remembers their former existence
there in its name), Mygdonia (home to Thracians), and Almopia (home
to the Almops).
454
- 448 BC :
Alcetas
II : Son. An alcoholic, he was killed by Archelaus, his
nephew.
454
BC :
The Macedonian kingdom formed by Alexander begins to disintegrate
under his successors. The alcoholism of Alcetas, and the in-fighting
between Perdiccas and Phillipus allows the Macedonian and other
subject tribes regain autonomy. Perdiccas' subsequent reign sees
him involved in the prelude to the Peloponnesian Wars, in
which he frequently switches sides between Athens and Sparta in
their growing conflict. He also fights the Lyncestae tribe and their
Illyrian allies when they oppose him in 424-423 BC but is forced
into a humiliating retreat.
448
- 413 BC :
Perdiccas
II : Brother. Took the throne following the murder of his
brother.
434
BC :
Phillipus
: Brother. Challenged Perdiccas for the throne.
429
BC :
Against the backdrop of the Second Peloponnesian War, Perdiccas
is opposed by Amyntas II, the son of either Phillipus or Menelaus.
He seeks the support of Sitalces, king of the Odrysian Thracians,
but Perdiccas mediates with Seuthes, the son of Sitalces to obtain
peace between the Thracians and Macedonia. Amyntas is forced to
wait for his accession.
413
- 399 BC :
Archelaus
I / Archelaos : Son of Perdiccas. Gained the throne by
murdering all rivals.
413
- 412 BC :
One of the first acts of Archelaus is to stabilise relations with
Athens, supplying it with wood with which to build a new fleet after
its disastrous defeat at Syracuse.
He also stabilises the kingdom, improving its organisation and infrastructure
by building strongholds and roads. By the time of his (possibly
accidental) death during a hunt at the hands of Craterus, one of
the royal pages, Macedonia is a significantly stronger kingdom.
399
BC :
Craterus / Crateuas : Royal page who killed the king. Seized
throne for 4 days.
399
- 396 BC :
Orestes
: Son of Archelaus.
399
- 396 BC :
Aeropus
II : Guardian of Orestes.
396
- 393 BC :
Archelaus II / Archelaos : Brother of Orestes. Patron of
arts & literature. Killed hunting.
393
- 392 BC :
A period of confusion follows the unexpected death of Archelaus
II. The subsequent kings rule for brief periods, with little information
regarding them. The kingdom probably fractures under the strain
of a virtual royal civil war while the neighbouring regions remain
barbarous and untamed.
393
BC :
Amyntas
II : Son of Phillipus or Menelaus, brother of Perdiccas.
393
BC :
Pausanias
: Son of Aeropus II. Assassinated by Amyntas III.
393
BC :
Amyntas
III : Son of Arrhidaeus. Driven out by the Illyrians.
393
BC :
Amyntas III is driven out of the kingdom by the Illyrians who are
assisting the pretender to the Macedonian throne, Argaeus. It takes
the rightful king just a year to regain his throne, with support
from the Thessalians.
393
- 392 BC :
Argaeus
II : Pretender. Probably returned in 359 BC.
392
- 370 BC :
Amyntas
III : Restored. Died of old age.
c.387
- 380 BC :
During the first years of his reign Amyntas III creates a fully
unified Macedonian state which heralds a period of greatness. Around
this time he also establishes good relations with Cotys of the Thracian
Odrysian kingdom which presages even closer relations under Philip
II.
370
- 368 BC :
Alexander
II : Son. Assassinated by Ptolemy I.
368
- 360 BC :
Perdiccas
III : Brother. Forced to accept regent. Killed in battle
by Dardani.
368
- 365 BC :
Ptolemy
I Alorites / of Aloros : Brother-in-law and regent. Killed
by Perdiccas III.
362
BC :
Athens and Sparta, together with the Eleans and the Mantinaeans,
are defeated by the Thebans at the Battle of Mantinea. The battle
is fought on 4 July, with the Thebans being supported by the Arcadians
and the Boeotian League. The Spartan defeat paves the way for Macedonian
supremacy later in the century.
360
BC :
Perdiccas is determined to put an end to the power of Bardylis of
the Illyrian tribe of the Dardani - power to the extent that Perdiccas
has been forced to pay tribute. He leads an army north to confront
him but the Dardani prove too strong for them. The Macedonians are
defeated with around four thousand dead, including the king.
360
- 359 BC :
Amyntas
IV : Infant son of Perdiccas III. Usurped by Philip II.
359
BC :
As soon as Phillip II deposes his infant nephew and claims the throne
for himself, the pretender, Argaeus, attempts to secure the throne
with Athenian support. Philip manages to persuade the Athenians
not to interfere. Argaeus gathers his supporters, along with some
freelance Athenians, and attempts to capture the capital by force
but is repulsed. While retreating back to his headquarters at Methone,
he is ambushed by Philip and defeated. He either dies during the
fighting or is executed afterwards.
359
BC :
Argaeus
(II?) : Possibly the same as the Argaeus of 393 BC.
359
- 336 BC :
Philip
II : Brother of Perdiccas III. Assassinated.
359
BC :
Philip makes an alliance with Cotys of the Thracian Odrysian kingdom.
In the same year he marries Olympias, the niece of King Arybbas
of Epirus. The union is partly to combine resources to ward off
the dangerous Illyrian tribes to the north-west, but it also cements
an alliance between the two kingdoms that helps to forge an empire.
![Phillip II of Macedonia](Macedonia_PhilipII_01_full.jpg)
With
his conquest of Greece and areas of near-Anatolia, Phillip II laid
down the foundations for the Hellenic empire that his son Alexander
would greatly expand upon
352
- 343 BC :
Artabazus II, satrap of Phrygia, falls out with Persian King Artaxerxes
III and takes refuge at the court of Philip II. When Artabazus discovers
Philip's designs to invade Persia, he returns there with his family,
is pardoned, and is enrolled amongst the closest companions of the
great king. His sons are given distinguished commands, with one
son, Ariobarzanes, becoming satrap of part of Persis (at least,
according to Arrian of Nicomedia, who calls him 'satrap' of Persis).
At
the same time, the new ruler of the Odrysian kingdom makes an enemy
of Philip so he undertakes a successful expedition into Thrace,
gaining ascendancy for a time. The Odrysian king subsequently throws
off Macedonian control, so a second expedition in 343 BC - the year
after he subdues the Illyrian Taulantii - gains Philip complete
dominance by 341 BC.
344/343
BC :
Caeria
is an Illyrian queen of unspecified affiliation. Mentioned only
briefly by Polyaenus, she is killed while leading her forces in
battle against another warrior 'queen', Cynane. She is a daughter
of Phillip II of Macedonia by his Illyrian wife, Audata, and half-sister
to Alexander, soon to be 'the great'. Not only is she a proven warrior
in her own right, she also acts in defence of the Macedonian kingdom.
339
BC :
Following
increasing contact with the Scythians,
their King Ateas enlists Macedonian troops to help him in a battle
against the city of Histria on the coastal shores of Thrace. Histria's
king dies suddenly and the Macedonian troops are summarily dismissed
upon their arrival. Further petty insults are traded between Ateas
and Phillip II until the two sides go to war in 339 BC. The battle
takes place on the plains of what is now Dobruja, with Ateas being
killed in action, his army routed, and his kingdom collapsing.
338
- 337 BC :
Philip defeats the Greek states at the Battle of Chaeronea and gains
overlordship over all of Greece, including Athens, Corinth
and Sparta. Athens and other city states join the Corinthian League
(or Hellenic League) which is formed by Phillip to unify the military
forces at his command so that he can pressure Persia. However, Philip
only narrowly escapes death at the hands of Pleurias of the Illyrian
Autariatae state.
336
BC :
The invasion of Persian Anatolia has only just begun when Philip
is assassinated at his capital in October of the year. The court
gathers for the celebration of the marriage between Alexander I
of Epirus and Philip's daughter, during which Philip is killed by
Pausanias of Orestis, one of his seven bodyguards. Pausanias tries
to escape and is pursued by three more of Philip's bodyguards, dying
at their hands.
Great
Kings of Macedonia (Macedonian (Greek) Empire) :
The
Macedonian kingdom only emerged around the end of the eighth century,
lead by the Argead dynasty of kings. Legend paints them as migrants
from Argos who were led by Caranus, hence Argead ('of Argos'). Initially
the kingdom occupied only the territory at the head and western
flank of the Thermaic Gulf, but it soon expanded to the east and
west. The River Strymon which empties into Lake Cercinitis (Lake
Kerkini) formed the eastern border during the main part of the pre-Alexandrine
kingdom's existence.
Thanks to foundations laid by Phillip II between 359-336 BC, his
son Alexander the Great ensured that the Macedonians were able to
reach the greatest extent of their expansion. His campaigns into
the previously-dominant Persian empire were well documented and
were generally highly successful so that, by 328 BC, the entire
Persian empire was now Greek. For a short time the Macedonians became
the greatest power in the world. Following Alexander's early death
in 323 BC the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic sections which
maintained Greek cultural influence across a great span of the ancient
world for several centuries. Alexander's immediate successors held
no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals who really
held control of Alexander's empire. During the course of civil wars
and negotiations for control of various sections, the territories
were divided up into separate kingdoms which were firmly established
by 305 BC.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus,
from Alexander the Great: A Reader, Ian Worthington (Routledge,
2012), from Bibliotheca Historica, Diodorus Siculus, from
Historiae Alexandri Magni, Quintus Curtius Rufus, from Anabasis
Alexandri, Arrian of Nicomedia, from the Mudrarakshasa,
Vishakhadatta (Playwright), from the Parishishtaparvan, Acharya
Hemachandra, from The Generalship of Alexander the Great,
J F C Fuller, from the Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek
Warfare, J Woronoff & I Spence, from From Democrats to
Kings: The Brutal Dawn of a New World from the Downfall of Athens
to the Rise of Alexander the Great, Michael Scott, from Epitome
of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Volume II, Marcus
Junianus Justinus, from Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the
Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire, Waldemar Heckel
(Ed), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), and from External
Links: Encyclopædia Britannica, and Diodorus of Sicily at the
Library of World History (dead link), and The Geography of Strabo
(Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1932), and The Natural History,
Pliny the Elder (John Bostock, Ed), and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and
A Brief History of Ancient Greece (Oxford University Press), and
A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William
Smith (Ed, 1867).)
336
- 323 BC :
Alexander III the Great : Son of Philip II & Olympias
of Epirus. Born 356 BC.
336 - 335 BC :
Probably sensing that the period of transition between one overlord
and his successor is the best time to mount such an attempt, the
Thracians revolt in 336 BC against Macedonian rule. Unfortunately
for them, Alexander immediately mounts a campaign which conquers
two of their tribes, bringing capitulation from the rest. The Illyrians,
led by the Dardani, Taulantii, and Autariatae, try the same in 335
BC and are similarly defeated.
334 - 323 BC :
Antipater
: Viceroy & regent of Macedonia during Alexander's
conquests.
334 - 333 BC :
In 334 BC Alexander launches his campaign into the Persian empire
by crossing the Dardanelles. The first battle is fought on the River
Graneikos (Granicus), eighty kilometres (fifty miles) to the east.
The Persian defeat forces Satrap Arsites of Daskyleion to commit
suicide. Sparda surrenders but Karkâ's satrap holds out in the fortress
of Halicarnassus with the Persian General Memnon. The fortress is
blockaded and Alexander moves on to fight the Lycian mountain folk
during the winter when they cannot take refuge in those mountains.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
The
route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with
them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the
vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range
333 - 332 BC :
The campaigning season of 333 BC sees Darius III and Alexander miss
each other on the plain of Cilicia and instead fight the Battle
of Issus on the coast. Darius flees when the battle's outcome hangs
in the balance, gifting the Greeks Khilakku and Cappadocia, although
pockets of Persian resistance remain in parts of Anatolia.
Alexander
proceeds into Syria during 333-332 BC to receive the submission
of Ebir-nāri, which also gains him Harran, Judah, and Phoenicia
(principally Arvad,
Byblos and Sidon,
with Tyre holding out until it can be taken by force). Athura, Gaza,
and Egypt also capitulate (not without a struggle in Gaza's case).
332
- 331 BC :
While Alexander is campaigning in Mesopotamia, Sparta has triggered
a rebellion (in 333 BC) against Macedonian hegemony in Greece with
allies from Elis, along with most of Achaea and Arcadia. As viceroy
and regent, Antipater marches a large army south and defeats the
rebellion after a desperate struggle. An unusual loss is Cappadocia,
which is declared to be the independent kingdom of Cappadocia.
At
the same time in 331 BC, the Battle of Gaugamela sees Alexander's
main army take on the massed forces of Persian King Darius III.
After a furious encounter with heavy casualties, the Persians start
to break. Darius flees the battlefield and heads eastwards, leaving
the defence of each of his provinces to its satrap. Alexander seizes
Media, Babylon, and Susa and, having gathered intelligence on Persis,
he immediately captures that too.
![The Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC](Persia_DariusIII_01_full.jpg)
Alexander
defeated the Persian king Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela
in Mesopotamia in 331 BC, with the victory giving him control of
all the lands to the west of Iran
330 - 328 BC :
Alexander's campaigns to the far east of Babylonia take him and
his army into unknown territory. Haraiva
is conquered late in 330 BC, and Uwarazmiy
welcomes Alexander. In 329 BC, he campaigns briefly in the southern
Indus before entering Bactria by the back door (via the Hindu Kush).
There, with the help of the Sakas and other subject groups and allies,
he is able to seize and execute Bessus, the would-be Achaemenid
ruler.
During
his subsequent conquest of Sogdiana, Alexander focuses on the largest
and best-defended of seven towns in the region, this being Cyropolis
in the Ferghana region. While he takes the other towns, he sends
Craterus to pin down the defenders of Cyropolis. Following the quick
fall of the other towns, the storming of Cyropolis is led by Alexander
in person. Both he and Craterus are wounded but the town and its
central fortress are taken.
327
BC :
Against the vehemently strong opinions held by his generals, Alexander
proceeds to marry Roxana. She is the daughter of Oxyartes, a Sogdian
warlord who had supported Bessus in his attempt to resist Alexander
in the east in 329 BC. Oxyartes himself had been one of the defeated
defenders of the fortress known as the 'Sogdian Rock' in 328 BC,
close to the Sogdian capital at Marakanda. Oxyartes himself is made
satrap of Gandhara.
![River Oxus / Amu Darya](River_AmuDarya01_full.jpg)
The
River Oxus - also known over the course of many centuries as the
Amu Darya - was used as a demarcation border throughout history
and was also a hub of activity in prehistoric times - but during
this period it flowed right through the heart of the region that
was known as Bactria
327 - 326 BC :
Alexander's army enters western India
through the passes of the Hindu Kush, aided by King Ambhi of Taxila
on the eastern bank of the River Indus and by the Sakas
under Omarg. In support of Ambhi, Alexander fights King Porus of
the neighbouring Paurava kingdom, defeating him at the Battle of
Hydaspes and then raising both kings as satraps of their respective
northern Indus regions.
Presumably both are under the administrative gaze of the Greek satrap
of Northern Indus, Eudamus. But the troops rebel against the prospect
of more battles against the great army of the Nandas in India, on
the Ganges. Alexander is forced to retreat, abandoning his hopes
of conquering India. While he has been away, Aspastes, satrap of
Carmania, has attempted a rebellion. Now he meets Alexander in neighbouring
Gedrosia and is promptly executed for his treason.
325 BC :
It is reported to Alexander while he is in Carmania
that Abisares, king of the mountain domain of the same name in the
Northern Indus province, has died, to be succeeded by his son, also
known as Abisares. Alexander confirms him in his position, although
the Greeks are not particularly well placed to do anything other
than this. Their control of the far eastern areas of the Indus has
already faded, leaving Abisares largely independent of them. Nothing
more is known of him or his kingdom.
![Taxila in modern Pakistan](Pakistan_Taxila01_full.jpg)
Having
seemingly fallen outside of central Persian control by the fourth
century BC, Taxila was a key city in the Northern Indus region,
especially when Alexander the Great found a friendly ally here on
almost the furthest extent of his eastwards explorations, and it
remained so for quite some time to come
When
Alexander returns from his long expedition into India, towards the
latter end of 325 BC, eight satraps and generals are removed from
office and executed. Most are guilty of assuming that Alexander
would not survive and had begun to exploit his empire for their
own personal benefit. To prevent similar problems in the future,
all satraps are ordered to disband their mercenary forces. Satraps
Abulites and Oxathres of Susiana and Paraetacene are amongst the
dead, apparently killed by Alexander in person using a javelin.
Subsequently, Satrap Philip of Northern Indus is assassinated as
the result of a conspiracy which has been formed amongst mercenary
troops under his command. This appears to be with the encouragement
of Chandragupta who is already busy forming his Mauryan empire in
India. Alexander names Eudamus and Taxiles as the rulers of his
territories in Northern Indus until an official replacement can
be sent. It is likely that Alexander dies before this takes place.
324 BC :
Alexander holds an event in Susiana which has become known as the
'Susa Weddings'. His intention is to unite Persians and Macedonians
symbolically by carrying out a mass joining of prospective couples
in a single ceremony. He takes a Persian wife himself and arranges
many Persian wives for his officers. Persian custom allows multiple
wives, so the fact that Alexander is already married to Roxana of
Sogdiana is not a hindrance. His second wife is Stateira II, eldest
daughter of the late Darius. Alexander may also take a third wife
at the same ceremony, Parysatis, youngest daughter of Artaxerxes
III (the late great-uncle of Darius and a former Persian king in
his own right).
![Susa Weddings](Elam_SusaWeddings01_full.jpg)
This
late nineteenth century engraving depicts a vision of the 'Susa
Weddings', with Stateira seated next to Alexander and several other
newlywed officers filling the rest of the scene (gravure reproduction
of a painting by Andreas Muller, Munich)
323 - 322 BC :
Following Alexander's premature death, his first wife, Roxana, murders
his second, Stateira, and possibly her sister, primarily to remove
competition in the succession. All of the surviving Macedonian officers
also divorce their own Persian wives, ending any pretence at Macedonian-Persian
unity.
Immediately,
a coalition of Greek cities springs up with the intention of detaching
Greece from the Macedonians, including Athens and the Aetolian League.
Despite two impressive victories in battle on land, the allies are
undone when the Athenian navy fails to secure control of the seas.
The Macedonians are able to bring in reinforcements and the war
ends in victory for the Macedonians and their Boeotian allies. The
Macedonian General Leonnatus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, has
been killed in the process of gaining it, however.
As far as the empire is concerned, Alexander's two successors are
retained as figureheads while the empire is governed by his powerful
generals. Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, is the first
general to rule, carrying the title 'Regent of Macedonia', first
with Meleager, head of the infantry officers, as his lieutenant,
but alone after he has him murdered.
![Ptolemy I coin](Hellenic_PtolemyI_Coin01_full.jpg)
Shown
here is an Hellenic-era Egyptian coin which displays the head of
Ptolemy I, Greek founder of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty following
the death of Alexander the Great
323 - 317 BC :
Philip III Arrhidaeus : Son of Philip II. Feeble-minded.
Titular king.
323 - 310 BC :
Alexander IV : Son of Alexander and Roxana. Titular king.
323 - 321 BC :
Perdiccas : Regent of Macedonia.
Control of the empire is divided up :
In
the west it is made up of Ptolemy in Egypt and Libya; Laomedon in
Syria and Phoenicia; Philotas in Cilicia; Peithon in Media (seemingly
sacrificing any centralised control over Southern Indus); Antigonus
in Lycia and Pamphylia; Asander in Caria; Menander in Lydia; Lysimachus
in Thrace and Hellespontine Phrygia; Neoptolemus in Armenia. Macedon
and the rest of Greece fall under the joint rule of Antipater and
Craterus (Alexander's most able lieutenant), while Alexander's secretary,
Eumenes of Cardia, gains Cappadocia, Mysia, and Paphlagonia. An
unknown satrap governs southern Cappadocia in opposition to Eumenes.
In the east, Alexander's arrangements remain largely intact: Ambhi
and Porus rule over their Northern Indus kingdoms, namely Taxila
and Paurava (seemingly at the expense of Eudamas as satrap); Alexander's
father-in-law Oxyartes rules Paropamisadae; Sibyrtius rules Arachosia
and Gedrosia; Stasanor rules Aria and Drangiana and then later Bactria
and Chorasmia; Philip rules Bactria and Sogdiana; Phrataphernes
rules Parthia and Hyrcania; Peucestas governs Persis; Archos governs
Susiana; Tlepolemus governs Carmania; Atropates governs northern
Media; Archon rules Babylonia; and Arcesilas rules northern Mesopotamia.
![Eumenes of Cardia](Macedonia_Eumenes01_full.jpg)
Eumenes
of Cardia, Macedonian general and one of Alexander the Great's 'successors'
between whom a series of wars were fought
322 - 320 BC :
The settlement doesn't last for long before rivalries bubble to
the surface and a round of territory-capturing is initiated. The
First War of the Diadochi (the successors - the generals
of Alexander's army) sees civil war break out between the generals,
and Perdiccas is murdered by his own generals during an invasion
of Egypt.
Philip
III agrees terms with the murdering generals and appoints them as
regents. Craterus, who had taken part in Alexander's campaigns in
Hyrcania and Sogdiana, is killed while fighting against Eumenes.
Perdiccas is briefly replaced as regent by Peithon (satrap of Media),
governing on behalf of Phillip III Arrhidaeus.
320
BC :
Peithon : Regent of Macedonia.
320 BC :
A new agreement with Antipater makes him regent of the empire instead,
and commander of the European section. Antigonus remains in charge
of Lycia and Pamphylia, to which is added Lycaonia, Syria and Phoenicia,
making him commander of the Asian section. He also holds Lydia through
Menander and now Cleitus. Ptolemy retains Egypt, Lysimachus retains
Phrygia and Thrace, Philoxenus retains Cilicia, while the three
murderers of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes - are
given the former Persian provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana
respectively. Tlepolemus is again confirmed in Carmania. Eudamus
regains control of the Northern Indus and kills one of the local
satraps, King Porus, between 321-315 BC.
![Coin depicting Antigonus Monophthalmus](Macedonia_Coins02_full.jpg)
Shown
here are both sides of a silver coin bearing the ANT monogram as
a handy way of determining the fact that it was minted by Antigonus
during his period as an independent king who was contesting control
of Alexander the Great's former empire
320 - 319 BC :
Antipater : Restored as regent of Macedonia. Died.
319 BC :
The death of Antipater leads to the Second War of the Diadochi.
He had passed over his son, Cassander, in favour of Polyperchon
as his successor (possibly to avoid claims of dynasticism) but the
two rivals go to war. Polyperchon allies himself to Eumenes (Alexander's
secretary, former satrap of Cappadocia, Mysia, and Paphlagonia),
but is driven from Macedonia by Cassander, and flees to Epirus with
the infant Alexander IV and his mother Roxana.
319
- 317 BC :
Polyperchon : Regent of Macedonia. Deposed in the Second
Diadochian War.
317 - 315 BC :
Philip III is killed by his stepmother, Olympias, in 317 BC who
is herself killed by Cassander the following year. Cassander also
captures Alexander IV and Roxana and installs a governor in Athens,
subsuming its democratic system. Eumenes is defeated in Asia and
is murdered by his own troops, and Seleucus is forced to flee Babylon
by Antigonus.
The result is that Cassander controls the European territories (including
Macedonia), while the Antigonids control those in Asia (Asia Minor,
centred on Lycia and extending as far as Susiana), and also temporarily
some of the eastern territories, including Aria, Drangiana, and
Parthia. Polyperchon remains in control of part of the Peloponnese.
Despite being allied with the losing side under Eumenes, Tlepolemus
is allowed to remain in Carmania.
![Babylon](Babylon_City02_full.jpg)
Babylon
was forever diminished by its roles in two major uprisings in the
fifth century BC and by its subsequent demotion in importance -
even the arrival of the Greeks did not revive its fortunes
317 - 306 BC :
Cassander : Regent of Macedonia. Son of Antipater. Claimed
crown (305 BC).
314 - 311 BC :
The Third War of the Diadochi results because the Antigonids
have grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals. Antigonus
is attacked by Ptolemy (of Egypt), Lysimachus (of Phrygia and Thrace),
Cassander (Macedonia), and Seleucus (of Babylonia). The latter re-secures
Babylon itself, plus Carmania, and the others conclude peace terms
with Antigonus in 311 BC.
Antigonus continues to fight Seleucus for Babylon but he is defeated
in 309 BC and withdraws. Antigonus' appointment as satrap of Media,
Nicanor, is removed from his post by Seleucus, and it seems likely
that the same happens in northern Mesopotamia. At around the same
time, Cassander murders the fourteen year-old Alexander IV and his
mother, Roxana, ending the Argead line of Macedonians.
310 BC :
To prove that Macedonia's troubles are not entirely of its own making,
in this year migrant Autariatae tribe of Illyrians are in Paonia.
They are close to defeating King Audoleon in battle when Cassander
comes to the rescue. The Illyrian warriors are settled along with
their families on Mount Orbelus in eastern Paonia on the frontier
between Macedonia and Thrace to be used as a buffer and a border
force against incursion from the north (primarily by Celts).
308 - 301 BC :
The Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC
Antigonus proclaims himself king, so the following year the other
generals do the same in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet
in his stronghold in the Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander
claims his territory. The war ends in the death of Antigonus at
the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
Lysimachus
and Seleucus divide Antigonus' Asian territories between them, with
Lysimachus receiving western Asia Minor (allowing him to form the
Lysimachian empire, including Caria, Pergamon and Phrygia), and
Seleucus the rest (the Seleucidire, including Susania, Babylonia,
Bactria, Carmania, and so on, although some areas such as the Northern
Indus and Southern Indus have been lost to the Mauryans).
The Anatolian provinces of Cilicia and Lycia go to Cassander's brother,
Pleistarchus. Pontus becomes independent, and Phrygia apparently
remains with or is reclaimed for the Antigonids by Antigonus' son,
Demetrius. Cappadocia is briefly usurped by Amyntas before Seleucus
seizes control and permits the restoration of the native ruling
dynasty there. Ptolemy remains secure in Hellenic Egypt, Libya,
and Palestine.
Antipatrid
Kings of Macedonia (Macedonian (Greek) Empire) :
305 - 277 BC :
Incorporating Non-Dynastic Kings
During the lifetime of Alexander the Great, while he was carving
out his great Greek empire, Antipater served as his regent back
home in Macedonia. His son, Cassander, seems to have spent most
of his time in Greece too, only being sent to Babylon as a messenger
in 324 BC, which probably put him there at the death of Alexander
in 323 BC. Following that event, Antipater continued to act as regent
for the king's brother and son while Cassander, during the settlement
of territories in 320 BC, was created chiliarch, an official
in charge of a king's daily affairs. His father's chosen successor
as regent, upon his death in 319 BC, was Polyperchon rather than
Cassander. So in 317 BC Cassander went to war against this general
to assert his own claim on the Macedonian regency. He drove his
rival out of Macedonia and captured Alexander's son and wife, putting
him in the powerful position of controlling Alexander's European
territories apart from the Peloponnese by 315 BC.
The
remaining wars between Alexander's generals did not change the ambitious
Cassander's position in Greece, so he remained regent until he killed
Alexander's son and wife in 309 BC (he had already killed Alexander's
mother, Olympias, in 310 BC and had married Alexander's half-sister,
Thessalonica, to secure his right to succeed the Argeads). From
that point he was king in all but name of Macedonia, although he
only proclaimed himself as such in 305 BC after Antigonus Monophthalmus
had assumed the same title in 306 BC for his Antigonid empire. The
result was that the other surviving generals copied him and the
illusion of maintaining the survival of Alexander's empire was over.
Aged about forty-five, Cassander was now undisputable (although
not undisputed) king of Macedon, founding a new dynasty.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Marshals
of Alexander's Empire, Waldemar Heckel, from Jewish War
& Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from Revised
Chronology for the Late Seleucids at Antioch, O Hoover, from
A History of Macedonia: Volume III, 336-167 BC, N G L Hammond
& F W Walbank (Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1988),
and from External Links: University of Leicester, and Listverse,
and Virtual Religion: Into His Own, and Encyclopædia Britannica,
and Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org,
and Diodorus of Sicily at the Library of World History, and Seleukid
Empire.)
305
- 297 BC :
Cassander : Regent (317-306 BC). Proclaimed himself king
of Macedonia.
302 - 301 BC :
Following the death of Antigonus at the decisive Battle of Ipsus,
Lysimachus of Thrace gains much of his Antigonid territory in western
Asia Minor, including Caria, and Seleucus gains more of it in the
east for his Seleucid empire. Antigonus' son and joint ruler escapes
from Ipsus with 9,000 men and manages to retain the remaining territories
for himself, thanks to jealousy between the four conquering kings.
He is helped in this after allying himself to Seleucus (who marries
his mother, Stratonice). Cassander remains steadfastly in control
of Macedonia.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
297 BC :
At about fifty-three, Cassander dies of dropsy. His son, Philip,
follows him due to natural causes less than a year later. Cassander's
new dynasty is deeply in trouble, as his other two sons are involved
in a dynastic dispute, all the while having to fend off Demetrius
of the Antigonids.
297
BC :
Philip IV : Son. Died of wasting disease.
297 - 294 BC :
Antipater II Etesias : Brother. Ousted Alexander. Overthrown
by Demetrius.
297 - 294 BC :
Alexander
V : Brother. Assassinated by Demetrius of the Antigonids.
294 BC :
Alexander is ousted by Antipater, his own brother, and turns to
Demetrius of the Antigonids for help. The Antigonid king forces
Antipater out, and subsequently has Alexander assassinated just
to balance the scales. Cassander's dynastic rule of Macedonia is
at an end. Demetrius now rules the expanded kingdom, albeit with
various strong rivals ranged against him. Antipater manages to stage
a short-lived return in 279 BC.
294
- 288 BC :
Demetrius
I Poliorcetes : Antigonid king (306-285 BC). Imprisoned
and died.
288 BC :
The position of Demetrius as king is continually threatened, and
eventually the combined forces of Pyrrhus (of Epirus), Ptolemy (of
Egypt), and Lysimachus (of Thrace), assisted by the disaffected
among his own subjects, oblige him to leave Macedonia in 288 BC.
He passes into Asia and attacks Lysimachus' provinces but famine
and plague destroys large numbers of his forces and he is abandoned
by his troops on the field of battle, surrendering to Seleucus (of
Syria and Babylonia). Lysimachus and Pyrrhus share Macedonia between
them, but soon begin to fight, and Pyrrhus is ejected.
![Lysimachian coin](Thrace_LysimachianCoins01_full.jpg)
This
silver tetradrachm was issued by Lysimachus, and shows the deified
head of Alexander the Great on the obverse, with the goddess Athena
on the reverse
288 - 281 BC :
Lysimachus : Lysimachian ruler. Killed by the Seleucids.
288 - 285 BC :
Pyrrhus
: King of Epirus. Ejected by Lysimachus.
281 BC :
Ptolemy II is the eldest son of Ptolemy of Egypt (it had been his
younger brother who had ascended the Egyptian throne as Ptolemy
II in 285 BC), and stays at the court of Lysimachus of Lysymacheia
until the king is killed by Seleucus, who is hoping to extend his
own empire. Killing Seleucus in return, Ptolemy agrees an alliance
with Pyrrhus of Epirus and marries Lysimachus' widow, Arsinoë, to
gain the throne. Then he kills Arsinoë's two sons for conspiracy
against him and Arsinoë flees to Egypt to seek protection from her
brother-in-law.
281
- 279 BC :
Ptolemy II Ceraunus / Keraunos : Son of Ptolemy Soter of
Egypt. Lysimachian ruler. Killed.
279 BC :
Despite ruling both the Lysimachian empire and Macedonia, and having
his main rival, the Antigonid King Antigonus II Gonatas bottled
up in his own capital, Ptolemy is killed during an invasion of Greece
by the hordes of the proto-Galatian Celts. The kingdom is plunged
into anarchy as the Celts invade further into Greece, and only the
Aetolians seem to be able to take the lead in defending Greek territory.
279 BC :
Meleager : Brother. Deposed by his troops after two months.
279 BC :
Antipater II Etesias : Son of Cassander. Restored. Ousted
by Sosthenes.
279 BC :
Macedonia is weakened by the reigns of four short-lived kings. Meleager
is forced to step down by his own troops after just two months.
His replacement, the returning Antipater II, governs for just forty-five
days before being deposed by Sosthenes, a possible former officer
in the army of the Lysimachian empire. Antipater remains a threat
until he is defeated by the Antigonid King Antigonus II Gonatas
(probably by 277 BC). He flees to his relatives in Egypt where he
lives out the remainder of his life.
![Coin issued by Cassander of Macedonia](Macedonia_Coins03_full.jpg)
Two
sides of a silver tetradrachm issued by Cassander as regent between
317-305 BC from the Amphipolis Mint, showing the laureate head of
Zeus (left) and a youth on horseback holding a palm
279 - 277 BC :
Sosthenes : Cousin? Army commander, not made king. Killed.
279 - 277 BC :
Sosthenes is elected king by the Macedonian army. His subsequent
assumption of the title of king is doubted, with it seeming more
likely that he remains strategos (military general). Apart
from facing continual rivalry from Antigonid King Antigonus II Gonatas,
during his short period in command Greece is still suffering from
the invasion by Galatian Celts. Following a victory at Thermopylae,
they are defeated by a force led by the Aetolians at Delphi in 278
BC, and then suffer a crushing defeat at the hands of Antigonus
II in 277 BC. They retreat from Greece and pass through Thrace to
enter into Asia Minor.
The fate of Sosthenes is uncertain, although he appears in Egypt
twenty years later where he is being urged by the pharaoh to contest
the Macedonian throne once more. The vacant throne is soon claimed
by Antigonus II, the son of Demetrius of the Antigonids and grandson
of Antigonus Monophthalmus, Alexander the Great's militarily powerful
general who had carved out a large empire of his own following Alexander's
death.
Antigonid
Kings of Macedonia :
277 - 148 BC :
Antigonus II of the Antigonids was originally based in Lycia, Pamphylia,
and Paphlagonia, close to territory in which his grandfather, the
one-eyed Antigonus Monophthalmus, had created an empire out of the
former conquests of Alexander the Great. Following Alexander's death
in 323 BC, the Wars of the Diadochi had seen the old general fight
a number of wars as the Greek empire fragmented, securing his own
hold on power in Anatolia and parts of the Near East. The last of
those wars saw a final showdown at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC,
but defeat and death for the elder Antigonus saw his empire picked
apart by his enemies. His son, Demetrius, managed to hold onto a
core territory while those enemies squabbled amongst themselves,
but even that was lost in 285 BC and the demoralised Demetrius handed
over his holdings to his son, Antigonus II.
The
younger Antigonus controlled no territory at all for two years afterwards,
other than the capital in which he was virtually trapped thanks
to attacks by his enemies. But he subsequently managed to wins some
small victories in Greece, thanks to which he was able to expand
his holdings. A defeat in 281 BC when Ptolemy II Ceraunus seized
the Antipatrid throne of Macedonia turned into an unexpected success
in 279-277 BC. Ptolemy was killed by invading Galatian Celts, following
which Antigonus defeated them in 277 BC at a time in which the Macedonian
throne was very weak.
Antigonus
II had already outlasted most of his rivals in Macedonia and the
Lysimachian empire, and was now able to claim the vacant Macedonian
throne himself to found a new ruling house in Macedonia and southern
Thrace combined that would last until Roman occupation ended independent
Greek rule. The fact that he was the grandson of Antipater and the
nephew of Cassander helped to reconcile most other Greek nobles
to his rule.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Marshals
of Alexander's Empire, Waldemar Heckel, from Jewish War
& Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from Revised
Chronology for the Late Seleucids at Antioch, O Hoover, from
A History of Macedonia: Volume III, 336-167 BC, N G L Hammond
& F W Walbank (Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1988),
and from External Links: University of Leicester, and Listverse,
and Virtual Religion: Into His Own, and Encyclopædia Britannica,
and Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org,
and Diodorus of Sicily at the Library of World History, and Seleukid
Empire.)
277
- 274 BC :
Antigonus
II Gonatas (Antikini) : Son of Demetrius of the Antigonids.
274
BC :
Just three years after claiming the Macedonian throne and uniting
Thrace to it, Antigonus is attacked and easily defeated by Pyrrhus
of Epirus, the former ally of Lysimachus. The Epirote king takes
Macedonia for himself and rules it for the last two years of his
life.
274
- 272 BC :
Pyrrhus : Restored. King of Epirus.
273
BC :
The Celts invade again, destroying the Thracian kingdom and forcing
the aristocracy to escape to the Greek colonies bordering the Black
Sea, which include Pontus. The kingdom of Galatia is created in
Anatolia by the victorious Celts.
272
BC :
Pyrrhus goes to war against Antigonus for his lack of support during
the war against Rome, but finds himself trapped inside the walls
of Argos with Antigonus surrounding him with superior forces. Trying
to extricate himself, his unit of elephants is thrown into confusion
and causes further chaos in which Pyrrhus is struck by a tile thrown
by an old woman. Zopyrus, one of Antigonus' soldiers, kills the
Epirote king. His entire veteran army goes over to the victorious
Macedonian king, greatly increasing his power.
272
- 239 BC :
Antigonus
II Gonatas : Restored following the death of Pyrrhus.
267
- 261 BC :
The Chremonidean War is fought between a coalition of Greek
city states led by Athens and Sparta who are fighting for the restoration
of their independence from Macedonian influence. They are aided
by the Ptolemaic Egyptians who are naturally threatened not only
by Antigonus' apparently peaceful rule of Greece, but by his friendship
with the Seleucid empire. He temporarily loses control of most of
the Greek city states to the south but, by 263 BC, has worn down
both Athens and Sparta. Order and prosperity are restored in Greece.
![Antigonus II Gonatas Coin](Macedonia_AntigonusII_01_full.jpg)
A
coin showing the face of Macedonian king, Antigonus II Gonatas
261
- 256 BC :
The
interference by Ptolemy of Egypt continues, triggering the Second
Syrian War. Macedonia and Antiochus II of the Seleucid empire
team up to combine their attacks. Egypt loses ground in Anatolia
and Phoenicia, and is forced to cede lands which include its ally,
the city of Miletus.
239
- 229 BC :
Demetrius
II Aetolicus : Son. May have been co-ruler from 257/256
BC.
235
BC :
Determined to rule themselves rather than remain under the rule
of kings, the people of Epirus form a republic called the Epirote
League. Their former royal family are exterminated between 235 and
about 233 BC, perhaps because their alliance with Macedonia is unpopular.
It certainly serves to gravely weaken Macedonia. However, during
his reign, Demetrius is able to extend the kingdom by taking Euboea,
Magnesia, and Thessaly and its surrounding territory, although not
Dolopia and perhaps also Peparethos and Phthiotic Achaia.
229
BC :
Just a year after losing control of Pergamon, Demetrius dies shortly
after a disastrous battle against the Dardanii on the kingdom's
northern border. His son, Philip, is an infant, so his cousin is
offered the throne as his guardian. He rescues the kingdom from
collapse, and defeats the Dardanii, so he is persuaded to marry
the widowed queen and take the throne for himself. It seems, however,
that he is unable to keep the recently conquered Thessaly (and Phthia)
within the kingdom.
229
- 221 BC :
Antigonus
III Doson : Cousin. Son of Demetrius the Fair of Cyrene.
222
BC :
Despite securing the throne for himself, Antigonus III appears to
view himself as a caretaker king for Philip V. He never tries to
secure his own sons as heirs to the throne. Instead, he builds on
his cousin's gains by re-establishing Macedonian power and dominance
across the region, and in this year he overwhelms the Spartans at
the Battle of Sellasia, ending any serious attempt by the Spartans
to oppose Macedonian superiority in Greece. He is aided in this
success by a force of 1,600 Illyrians under the command of Demetrius
of Pharos who commands the island of Corcyra.
221
BC :
Although Greece is at peace, the Illyrians are a constant threat
to the northern borders. They invade Macedonia and Antigonus has
to rush north to defeat them in battle. He suffers a ruptured artery
during the battle and dies.
221
- 179 BC :
Philip
V : Son of Demetrius II.
215
- 205 BC :
During the Second Punic War, Philip allies himself to Carthage.
To avoid a possible reinforcement of Hannibal by Macedonia, Rome
dispatches a force to tie down the Macedonians in the First Macedonian
War. The war ends indecisively in 205 BC with the Treaty of
Phoenicia. Even though it is only a minor conflict, it opens the
way for later Roman military intervention in Greece. The Macedonian
cause is not helped by the fact that Rome has allies in some of
the tribes of the Illyrians (such as the Parthini) - inveterate
enemies of Macedonia.
214
BC :
The Thracians eject the Celts of the kingdom of Galatia from Greece
and restore Thracian rule.
206-
205 BC :
Both
Scerdilaidas of the Ardiaei and his son, Pleuratus, are witnesses
to a peace treaty signed between Philip of Macedonia and the Romans.
This follows the signing of a separate treaty in 206 BC between
Philip and the Aetolians as he attempts to reduce the number of
fronts on which he has to fight. Now he can concentrate on pacifying
the enemies to his north: Illyrians, Dardani, and Thracians.
202
BC :
Philip conquers the kingdom of Thrace and permanently appends it
to Macedonia. It remains part of Macedonian territory until the
final end of the kingdom.
200
- 196 BC :
The Second Macedonian War is triggered by claims made by
Pergamon and Rhodes of a secret treaty between Macedonia and the
Seleucid empire that is designed to carve up Egypt's possessions.
Rome launches an attack and after a spell of indecisive conflict,
Philip is defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, while
his general, Androsthenes, is defeated near Corinth.
All
the time the Illyrians (especially the Dardani) are also raiding
Macedonia in support of the Romans and causing more damage than
the war. The Macedonian army is drastically reduced in size as a
result of the defeat, and Philip's standing as an important Greek
king is greatly diminished. Rome hands the strategic stronghold
of Lychnitis to Pleuratus of the Ardiaei, following nearly two centuries
of Macedonian rule there.
![Philip V of Macedonia](Macedonia_PhilipV_01_full.jpg)
This
silver tetradrachm bears the head of Philip V of Macedonia, one
of its great later kings but one who was also the cause of Roman
intervention
179
BC :
Philip invites in a massive contingent of warriors from the tribe
of the Bastarnae which resides to the north of the Danube. Apparently
they are long-time allies of his and are needed to help him defeat
the aggressive Dardanii, raiding Thraco-Illyrians who are located
along his northern border and whom his diminished army is unable
to defeat alone. However, the aged king dies before his allies can
arrive. Now unsupported and without supplies, the Bastarnae pillage
the land, although they are checked by Thracians who are on the
defensive. About half their number return home while the rest press
on for Macedonia where they are quartered by Perseus, who uses them
in an attack on the Dardanii. The Bastarnae are ultimately defeated
and return homewards. While crossing the frozen Danube on foot,
the ice gives way and most of their number are drowned.
179
- 167 BC :
Perseus
: Son. Persuaded Philip to kill his pro-Roman brother,
Demetrius.
171
- 168 BC :
The use of the Bastarnae to attack Macedonia's enemies has forewarned
Rome of Perseus' intention to break the restrictions laid on his
father following Macedonia's defeat in 197-196 BC. Now Macedonia
and Rome renew the fighting in the Third Macedonian War.
Despite a refusal of support from Antiochus IV of the Seleucid empire,
Perseus enjoys some initial success (and not only against Rome -
he captures the chief town of the Illyrian Penestae tribe too),
but is forced to surrender following defeat at the First Battle
of Pydna on 22 June 168 BC. He is taken prisoner and transported
to Rome by the victorious Roman general, Lucius Aemilius Paullus,
along with his half-brother, Philippus, and his infant son, Alexander.
168
- 150 BC :
Roman rule of Macedonia and Thrace follows the defeat of Perseus.
The Antigonids are removed from power and the kingdom is dismantled
and replaced by four republics.
Roman
Governors of Macedonia & Thrace :
168 BC - AD 395 :
The
rule of Macedonia and Thrace by the Roman republic followed the
defeat of Perseus, the last of the native Macedonian kings. All
around the eastern Mediterranean, the states that had been created
by the Macedonian empire were falling to Rome, as was Greece itself,
and the loss of Macedonia was a great blow for Greek freedom. Following
their defeat at the First Battle of Pydna on 22 June 168 BC, the
Antigonids were immediately removed from power and the kingdom was
dismantled and replaced by four republics.
Information
on Roman governors seems to be very sparse, and multiple rebellions
and uprisings occurred in Macedonia, but more especially in Thrace,
which was still very tribal and prone to violent actions. The situation
there calmed down in the first century AD following the near destruction
of the Bessoi, one of Thrace's most warlike tribes, but incursions
by tribes from the Danube area continued to be a serious problem.
(Information
by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from Continuity and Innovation in Religion in the Roman West,
R Haeussler, Anthony C King & Phil Andrews, from Liber Prodigiorum,
Julius Obsequens, from Periocha, Livy, from Res Gestae,
Ammianus Marcellinus, from Valerius Maximus, Pseudo-Quintilian,
and Paulus Orosius, from Epitome of Roman History, Florus,
from Historia Romana, Cassius Dio, from Flavius Eutropius,
from Strategemata, Frontinius, from 'Breviary', Sextus
Festus, from St Jerome Emiliani (Hieronymus), from Getica,
Jordanes, from The Celts in Macedonia and Thrace, G Kazarov,
from The Origin of the Gundestrup Cauldron, Antiquity, Vol 61,
1987, A K Bergquist & T Taylor, from The Getae in Southern
Dobruja in the Period of the Roman Domination: Archaeological Aspects,
S Torbatov, and from External Links: Journal of Celtic Studies
in Eastern Europe and Asia-Minor, and Scordisci Swords From Northwestern
Bulgaria.)
168
- 166 BC :
Gaius Publilius : Roman governor.
fl
c.150 BC :
Lucius Fulcinius : Roman governor.
150
BC :
Andriscus of Macedon, ruler of Adramyttium in Aeolis, claims to
be the son of Perseus and breaks the Roman hold over the former
kingdom when he leads a popular uprising in the Fourth Macedonian
War.
![Roman forum in Stobi](Macedonia_StobiRomans01_full.jpg)
The
Roman Forum at modern Stobi is now in North Macedonia (known for
some time as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM))
149
- 148 BC :
Andriscus
/ Philip VI : Son of Perseus? Defeated by Rome.
149
- 148 BC :
Andriscus invades Macedonia from Thrace in 149 BC and defeats an
army under the Roman praetor, Publius Juventius. Then he proclaims
himself King Philip VI of Macedonia. In the following year, his
popular uprising is put down by the legions at the Second Battle
of Pydna, and they establish a permanent residence in Greece. The
Achaean League of Greek states rises up against this presence and
is swiftly destroyed. Rome also destroys Corinth as an object lesson
and annexes Greece, including Macedonia and Thrace.
146
BC :
The four client republics are dissolved and Macedonia officially
becomes the Roman province of Macedonia, which also includes Epirus,
Thessaly, and areas of Illyria, Paeonia, and Thrace. With these
regions under tighter control, Rome is free to take a tougher line
against the recalcitrant Scordisci tribe in the Balkans and the
various Thracian tribes to the east of Greece.
146?
- ? BC :
Gnaeus Egnatius : Roman proconsul. Built the Via Egnatia
across Greece.
141
BC :
Having organised its forces in Greece, Rome makes its first move
against the Scordisci by launching an offensive that, to its surprise,
fails. The Scordisci repulse the attack and launch a counter-attack
on Macedonia, although this is also repulsed. Thanks to this stalemate
a period of peace follows.
c.140
- 130 BC :
Indo-Scythians have long been pressing against the borders of the
far distant Greek kingdom of Bactria. Now, following a long migration
from the borders of the Chinese kingdoms, the Greater Yuezhi start
to invade Bactria from Sogdiana to the north. Within a decade, around
the time of the death of Indo-Greek King Menander in 130 BC, the
Greater Yuezhi overrun Bactria and end Greek rule there.
?
- 119 BC :
Pompeius : Roman governor. Killed.
119/117
BC :
Although generally ascribed to 119 BC, Kazarov places this event
in 117 BC. After a general period of peace lasting for more than
fifteen years, the Scordisci manage to push all the way through
the Roman defences, reaching the Aegean coast. The Roman governor
of Macedonia, Pompeius, is killed during an attack on Argos. A force
led by Quaestor Marcus Annius finally ends their adventure, pushing
them back. A subsequent attack by the Scordisci together with the
Thracian Maedi tribe is also repulsed.
The
involvement of the Maedi tribe in the second attack marks the beginning
of a new, more widespread involvement in the frequent campaigns
between Romans and barbarians. While the Celts in Thrace and the
lower Balkans continue to offer the biggest threat to Roman expansion,
the native Balkan tribes frequently support them, especially the
Bastarnae, Dardani, and the free Thracian tribes (the Bessoi, Denteletes,
Maedi, and Triballi). It takes this Macedonian raid to make Rome
fully aware of the severity of the threat to its security in the
region.
115
BC :
Following the scare of 119 BC, former consul Quintus Fabius Maximus
Eburnus is sent to Macedonia. Eburnus has established his reputation
as a strict disciplinarian (and later goes so far as to execute
his own son for 'immorality' in 104 BC, for which he is prosecuted).
Plans are drawn up for the Roman conquest of Thrace, probably by
him (according to Orosius, Pseudo-Quintilian, and Valerius Maximus).
As part of this strategy a Roman fortress is established at Heracleae
Sintica (modern Rupite, near Petritch in south-western Bulgaria)
with a garrison of two cohorts commanded by one Lucullus. Located
on the strategic Struma river valley, and possibly already inside
Celtic territory, it is the only practical route for moving a large
military force into western Thrace. The invasion begins in 114 BC,
led by Consul Gaius Porcius Cato.
110
- 107 BC :
Marcus Minucius Rufus? : Roman governor? Crushed the Bessoi.
109
BC :
Greater retaliation is delivered by Rome when a Roman army enters
Thrace under the command of Marcus Minucius Rufus. According to
several Roman writers and also an inscription at Delphi (which is
probably ordered by Rufus himself), both the Scordisci and the Thracian
Bessoi tribe are defeated. If true it would be the first Scordisci
defeat since 135 BC, or even earlier. The attack targets not only
barbarian military means but, in a change to previous encounters,
targets the civilian populations in a rather brutal manner. Rome
triggers a pattern of increasing atrocities in its war against the
tribes in Thrace and the Balkans.
Interestingly,
the campaign ignores the perils of the Struma Valley and instead
proceeds along the much more open River Hebrus river valley (the
modern Maritsa), which is much more suitable for a Roman army. It
also seems to be aimed at the heart of the territory controlled
by the previously peaceful Bessoi tribe, although it happily involves
any other tribes, especially the Scordisci. As the Bessoi live along
the Hebrus they make an ideal target without the involvement of
dangerous forays away from the river valley. No territory is gained
as a result of the raid, but it lays down a marker for the future.
To
take the gloss off the campaign's success, during their homeward
march a large part of the Roman army drowns when ice on the river
breaks underfoot. The attack on the Bessoi also turns them into
one of Rome's most bitter enemies in Thrace, and forces them into
forging closer links with the Celts in Thrace.
109
- 90 BC :
While
no further campaigns appear to be mounted by Rome during the closing
years of the second century BC, the Scordisci and their Thracian
allies, especially the Maedi, continue to attack Roman Macedonia.
These attacks continue into the early years of the first century
BC. Archaeology shows a dramatic increase in the levels of La Tène
militarisation during this period, as Scordisci society gears up
to face the continuing conflict.
![Scordisci weapons](Celts_ScordisciWeapons01_full.jpg)
This
photo displays material gathered from the Scordisci warrior burial
at Montana in north-western Bulgaria
The
constant warfare is also reflected in mass burials such as the one
found at Slana Voda, where a large number of Celtic battle casualties
are buried at the same time. Hoards of Hellenic and Roman plunder
are notable from the same period, especially in the form of coins,
alongside Celtic issues which often depict attacks against Roman
resources. Finds also include a dense collection of La Tène swords
in sites between the rivers Timok and Iskar in modern north-western
Bulgaria - the largest concentration of such Celtic materials in
Europe. Rome has sown the seeds of warfare and is now reaping the
whirlwind of endless attacks by the new enemies it has made.
c.94?
- c.92? BC :
Lucius Julius Caesar III : Roman governor. Killed in the
Roman Civil War in 87 BC.
c.92
- ? BC :
Sentius : Roman governor.
90
BC :
Rome's forces in the Balkans have increasingly been feeling the
strain of the constant attacks on them. Now the dam bursts under
the weight of yet another combined attack by the Scordisci and Maedi.
The Roman historian Florus provides a detailed description of events.
The Scordisci and Maedi, supported by the Thracian Denteletes and
by the Dardanii, swarm through Dalmatia, Macedonia, and Thessaly,
reaching as far as Epirus on the Adriatic. They vent the frustration
of years of warfare against the Romans by freely destroying and
plundering, although Florus paints a typically pro-Roman picture
of barbarian atrocities, citing the Scordisci especially as 'the
cruellest of all the Thracians... and to their strength was added
cunning as well'. The attack deprives Rome of control over many
areas of the Balkans and northern Greece.
88
BC :
By
this time the Scordisci and their allies have swept through northern
Greece and have reached Dodona in Epirus. Roman accounts have them
destroying the temple of Zeus there, one which the Romans themselves
had destroyed in 167 BC and which, presumably, had been rebuilt
by the Greeks in the meantime. The Romans are suitably outraged
by the destruction of many other temples and similar sites that
they had also destroyed in the previous century while conquering
Greece.
85
- 84 BC :
Rome is finally able to respond to their ongoing disaster in the
Balkans and Greece. Sula leads an army against the Scordisci, apparently
'punishing' them according to Roman writers. Certainly prisoners
are treated cruelly, with fire and sword being used to inflict severe
cruelties upon them (so says Flores). However, Sula merely serves
to further fan the flames. As soon as he leaves for Asia, the Celts
and Thracians overrun the southern Balkans and northern Greece and
penetrate the Peloponnese. They reach Delphi by the end of 85 BC
to vandalise many of the religious sites there.
81
BC :
Cornelius
Scipio arrives to lead a fresh Roman campaign in the Balkans. Again,
the effort appears punitive, with no long-term strategy to secure
the territory. The Scordisci and Thracian tribes are undaunted by
the action.
78
- 76 BC :
Appius Claudius Pulcher : Roman governor. Consul of Rome
in 79 BC. Died on campaign.
76
BC :
The
new Roman governor of Macedonia, Appius Claudius Pulcher, leads
a large army against the Scordisci confederation - the same Celts
who had destroyed Cato's army and garrison in 114 BC. This time,
however, the Scordisci employ different tactics. Pulcher's army
is probably superior to Cato's, so he is allowed to penetrate the
Thracian mountains unmolested. There, a vicious and drawn-out series
of skirmishes and small-scale battles takes place between Romans
and natives, with the Celts especially employing highly successful
guerrilla tactics to wear down the opposition. Following months
of constant alerts, illness, and defeats, Pulcher dies and the remains
of his army withdraws from western Thrace.
76
- 72? BC :
Gaius Scribonius Curio : Roman governor. Consul of Rome
in 76 BC. Died 53 BC.
75
BC :
Despite
the disappointment of 76 BC, Rome is making gradual progress in
other parts of Thrace. The campaigns of Cnaeus Scribonius Curio
in western Thrace from 75 BC see Roman forces penetrate the previously
hostile Struma Valley to reach the Danube. They take large numbers
of prisoners along the way, including a chieftain of the Maedi named
Spartacus. Plutarch states that his wife is also taken prisoner.
Some ancient sources state that Spartacus is in fact a Roman auxiliary
who is later condemned to slavery, but all generally agree on his
Thracian origins.
![South Struma Valley](Bulgaria_SouthStrumaValley01_full.jpg)
The
South Struma Valley, showing the kind of territory the Romans had
to pass through during their relatively successful campaign of 75
BC
72
BC :
Gaius Scribonius Curio occupies the lands of the Dardanii, and expands
the province as far north as the Danube.
c.70
- 65 BC :
Aesillas : Roman governor.
c.63
- 60 BC :
Gaius Antonius Hybrida : Roman governor.
62
- 61 BC :
In response to Rome's incursions into the Danube delta, which are
seen as a major threat by all the peoples of the region, King Burebista
of the Getae has united all of the Getae into a single kingdom.
He has also established overlordship of the neighbouring Bastarnae
and Sarmatians. Burebista's powerful forces raid regularly into
Roman-held territory. In 62 BC the Greek cities rebel against Roman
rule, and in the following year the Bastarnae manage to isolate
the Roman infantry of the inept proconsul of Macedonia, Gaius Antonius
(uncle to Mark Antony). The entire force is massacred. The Roman
hold over the region collapses.
57
- 55 BC :
Lucius Calpurnius Piso : Roman governor. His son returned
in 11 BC to quell uprising.
55
BC :
Rabokentus of the Bessoi is mentioned by Cicero in relation to action
that is taken by Lucius Calpurnius Piso, to suppress unrest in the
province. Rabokentus is murdered by Piso after the latter accepts
a bribe from Kotys II of the Astean, a typical example of Roman
officials playing off the native leaders against one another.
42
BC :
During his reign, Raskouporis of Sapes has already granted assistance
to both Pompey and Caesar during their struggle for power. Now,
immediately after the murder of Julius Caesar, he supports the Roman
republican faction under Brutus and Cassius against Mark Antony
and Octavian. In return, Brutus and Cassius lead campaigns against
the tribal Bessoi in the highlands in defence of their allies.
fl
29 - 28 BC :
Marcus Licinius Crassus : Roman governor.
29
BC :
The
Bastarnae cross the Haemus in support of the Scordisci in modern
north-western Bulgaria. They attack a Thracian tribe known as the
Dentheletae who are allies of Rome. General Marcus Licinius Crassus,
proconsul of Macedonia, goes to assist the Dentheletae with help
from the Getae under King Roles, and the Bastarnae withdraw. Crassus
follows them and eventually engages them in battle. Caught unawares,
the Bastarnae are routed and their king is killed in combat with
Crassus. According to Roman writers, thousands of Bastarnae perish
in the ensuing slaughter.
28
BC :
Dio Cassius Cocceianus reports that Marcus Licinius Crassus undertakes
a punitive expedition against the Thracians (in what is now southern
Bulgaria), mainly against the Bessoi. The ancient sanctuary of Dionysos,
described by Herodotus, is captured, taken away from the Bessoi
priests and priestesses, and delivered to the Astean, who are Roman
allies. The Bessoi do not accept the settling of these Odrysian
Thracians in their ancient sanctuary and revolt. This first uprising
is quickly suppressed.
Crassus
also 'punishes' the Scordisci tribes of north-western Bulgaria.
By this time Rome has engaged the Thracian kingdom of Sapes to act
as a proxy government over local Thracian affairs and to oversee
the gradual Romanisation of the region. It seems that Thracian resistance
to Rome to any substantive degree has finally come to an end.
19
BC :
King Kotys III of Sapes is killed by Raskouporis II. Roimitalkes
II, the son of the victorious king is given the lands to the north
of the Haemus in Thrace while Kotys' son, Roimitalkes III gets the
lands to the south, both ruling under the guardianship of the Roman
governor of Macedonia.
16
BC :
The
Celts of the former Scordisci confederation have one last surprise
remaining for Rome. As imperial Rome stamps its authority on the
Balkans, Celtic tribes swoop down from the Thracian mountains. They
swarm into Macedonia and lay waste to the Roman province once again.
The attack surely comes from the Rhodope Mountains in south-western
Bulgaria, making it the last hurrah of the Scordisci and providing
Rome with a brutal reminder that although the cities and plains
may be civilised, the mountains of central and western Thrace are
still areas to be feared.
15
- 11 BC :
Vologeses is a Dionysian priest (and possible king) who leads his
fellow mountain Bessoi in one of the most prolonged uprisings against
the Romans. Their initial aim is to free and re-conquer the sanctuary
of Dionysos. Other Thracians join the uprising, and it quickly grows
into a storm. Dio Cassius relates that a number of regions in Thrace
are ravaged and the Odrysians of Astean are persecuted by the revolting
Bessoi. Raskouporis II of Astean is killed and his relative, Roimitalkes
I of Sapes, is forced to seek protection from the Romans. To suppress
the uprising, the Romans receive help from Pamphylia, and under
Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, son of former Governor Lucius
Calpurnius Piso, they manage to quell the revolting Bessoi by drowning
the country in blood and fire.
AD
9 :
With the formation of the new Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Moesia
and Thrace, the province of Macedonia acquires the physical dimensions
that it retains throughout the empire period. It also gains safety
and security at last, with the Thracian tribes fully pacified and
external threats kept away by the buffer provinces around it.
![Roman Stobi](Macedonia_StobiRomans02_full.jpg)
The
Roman city of Stobi (now in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia)
was a sophisticated and attractive Roman city in Macedonia
c.10
:
The
long-since isolated and very distant Indo-Greek kingdom disappears
under Indo-Scythian pressure. It seems to be Rajuvula, kshatrapa
in Mathura at this time, who invades what is virtually the last
free Indo-Greek territory in the eastern Punjab. He kills Strato
II and his son. Pockets of Greek population probably remain for
some centuries under the subsequent rule of the Kushans and Indo-Parthians,
and a possible enclave of Greek rule is apparently maintained briefly
in Paropamisadae.
32
- ? :
Publius Memmius Regulus : Roman praefectus of Macedonia.
114/115
:
Publius Iuventius Celsus : Roman praefectus of
Thrace.
267/268
- 269 :
The Peucini Bastarnae are specifically mentioned in the invasion
across the Roman frontier. Part of the barbarian coalition which
includes Goths and Heruli, they use their knowledge of boat building
from several centuries of living on the Black Sea coast and in the
Danube estuary to help build a fleet in the estuary of the River
Tyras (now the Dniester). The force of which they are part sails
along the coast to Tomis in Moesia Inferior. They attack the town
but are unable to take it. Sailing on, they are frustrated twice
more, at Marcianopolis and Thessalonica in Macedonia. Athens is
also attacked, captured, and plundered by the Heruli (in 267-268).
Finally, they move into Thrace where they are crushed by Emperor
Claudius II at Naissus in 269.
c.285
- 318 :
Following reforms by Roman Emperor Diocletian at the end of the
third century, Epirus Vetus is removed from the province of Macedonia.
In the less well-recorded fourth century, Macedonia itself is divided
into Macedonia Prima (the south) and Macedonia Salutaris (the north).
In 318 they form part of the diocese of Macedonia, one of three
dioceses which is included in the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum.
395
:
Greece becomes the central segment of the Eastern Roman empire.
It remains so until the Byzantine empire's final conquest in 1453
by the Ottoman empire. Only in the twentieth century does an independent
Greek kingdom rise out of two millennia of Turkic occupation or
Romanised empire.
However,
by that time Macedonia, on the northern edge of modern Greece's
territory, has been influenced by later arrivals, such as early
Slav groups in the fifth and sixth centuries, and at least one major
group of Bulgars in the seventh century. The territory of the kingdom
at its height is now split between Greece's province of Macedonia
(the heartland of the early kingdom) and North Macedonia (the expanded
territories which includes Paeonia).
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsEurope/GreeceMacedonia.htm
#Great%20Kings