BABYLONIAN
EMPIRE
Babylonian Empire (Old Babylonian Period) / Dynasty I :
c.1792 - 1595 BC
The
small Amorite kingdom which was centred on the city of Babylon was
probably founded about a century after the collapse of Sumer in
circa 2004 BC. Lying in the region of Akkad, it was known as Babil
by the Sumerians and Bab-ilim by the Akkadians, and had existed
as little more than a village since at least 2700 BC.
In
circa 1897 BC, an Amorite prince called Sumu-Abum took advantage
of the period of anarchy in Mesopotamia following the collapse of
Ur, and settled in Babil. So as not to draw attention to himself,
he continued the worship of a small local god; a secondary divinity
of the family of Enki named Marduk (or Amar UTU), the servant of
the protective god Shamash, son of Sippar. Marduk was soon going
to replace the great god Enlil, and become the god of power, war,
sex and domination, ideal for a city that, within little over a
century, would dominate all of Mesopotamia.
Babylon
played its own part in the flowering of knowledge in the eighteenth
and seventeenth centuries BC. The Code of Hammurabi was one of the
most important documents in Babylon's history. It was a series of
laws which emphasised the pursuit of justice, especially in relation
to business transactions, and it set the form for later law codes.
All
dates for this period are approximate until the eighth century BC.
This list follows the (until recently) most generally accepted middle
chronology for dating rulers, although there are three other competing
models. The newly in-favour short chronology dates the Old Babylonians
to sixty-four years later than is shown here.
(Additional
information by Sean Bambrough, and from the Book of Jubilees (otherwise
known as the Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), by unknown ancient Jewish
religious authors).)
Cush?
: Legendary great-grandson of Noah.
fl
c.1900 BC :
Nimrod?
/ Nebrod? : Son. Possible founder of Babylon.
The
Biblical Nimrod is credited in Genesis as having a kingdom which
includes Babel (Babylon), and Erech, and Accad (Akkad), and Calneh
(identity uncertain), in the land of Shinar (Sumer). The Book
of Jubilees mentions the name in its Greek form, Nebrod, as
being the father of Azurad, the wife of Eber and mother of Peleg.
This account would therefore make him an ancestor of the Israelite
leader, Terah, who, six generations later, departs from Ur around
c.1752 BC. As Terah can be dated approximately, so too can Nimrod.
Nimrod's imperial ventures (and name) as described in Genesis may
be based on the conquests of the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I
(1244-1207 BC). It is Nimrod who is claimed as the would-be builder
of a great tower in Babylon, the 'Tower of Babel'. The story is
used to explain the existence of many different and sometimes non-mutually-comprehensible
languages in the ancient world.
Although
records are sketchy and imprecise, the Amorites of Babylon seem
to emerge approximately a century after the collapse of Sumer when
Sumuabum frees the city from the domination of nearby Kazallu. The
first five rulers of Babylon (sometimes called Akkad, which is the
region in which it is located), ensure its survival, but at first
they acquire little territory outside that which they already possess
- a few towns in the surrounding land.
c.1897
- 1883 BC :
Su-abu
/ Suum-abum / Sumuabum : Freed Babylon
from the rule of Kazallu.
The
first Babylonian king starts out as a minor Amorite leader who seizes
the town from Kazallu and declares its independence. He begins his
reign with the construction of a great city wall, which is still
unfinished at his death, after he is driven into exile in Der by
Manana of Kish.
![Ancient Babylon](Babylon_City01_full.jpg)
Babylon
began life as a modest town which had been seized from Kazallu,
but was quickly fortified by the building of a city wall in the
nineteenth century BC
c.1883
- 1847 BC :
Sumula-ilum
/ Sumu-la-el : Sacked Kish and Kazallu.
c.1847
- 1832 BC :
Sabium
/ Sabum : Killed Silli-Adad of Larsa.
c.1832
- 1812 BC :
Apil-sin
c.1830
BC :
Eshnunna
extends its territory considerably into northern Babylonia under
the reign of Naram-Sin. Between 1819-1812 BC, the king of Ekallatum
is forced to take refuge in Babylon after Naram-Sin conquers his
city.
c.1812
- 1793 BC :
Sin-muballit
: Defeated by Rim-Sin of Larsa.
By
the time of Hammurabi's accession to the throne, the kings of Babylon
had begun to enlarge the state's borders by conquering the Amorite
cities of Dilbat, Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar. If it didn't already
also control Kazallu from c.1861 BC, it certainly does so by this
time.
c.1792
- 1750 BC :
Hammurabi
: Son. Established the empire.
c.1787
BC :
Increasing the state's size and strength considerably, Hammurabi
attacks and defeats the Amorite city state of Isin.
c.1784
BC :
The city state of Malgum is seized.
c.1776
BC :
The
kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia falls, bringing temporary independence
to most of northern Mesopotamia. It takes Hammurabi until about
1761 BC to fully conquer former Sumerian Mesopotamia, but the importance
of that conquest suggests that he starts conquering Syrian city
states almost as soon as the kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia collapses.
He is known to capture the city of Qatna
during his reign.
c.1764
BC :
A major invasion by a coalition army of Elamites, Assyrians, Gutians
and Eshnunnians
is defeated and crushed, and Hammurabi retaliates against Elam.
c.1763
BC :
Hammurabi attacks and defeats the Amorite city state of Larsa for
its failure to provide any real assistance in the allied effort
to beat back the growing threat of the powerful Elamites. The victory
gives him control of the entire lower Mesopotamian plain, which
includes Nippur, Ur, Uruk, and Isin.
The Elamites become vassals of Babylonia, as does Ekallatum.
c.1762
BC :
The
Babylonians capture the only remaining political power to oppose
them when they take Eshnunna, inheriting well-established trade
routes and economic stability. Northern Mesopotamia is occupied,
ending the independence of small city states such as Andarig,
Karana, Qattara,
and Razama.
c.1761
BC :
Mari, which had previously been a minor ally against the kingdom
of Upper Mesopotamia, is finally defeated. The removal of this last
opposition wins Hammurabi control of virtually all of former Sumerian
Mesopotamia. During this period, and perhaps due to this dominance,
the city of Kisurra
declines. Hammurabi also maintains important trade relations with
the Canaanite
city of Hazor.
c.1752
BC :
Two
Semitic Israelite leaders, Terah and Abraham, lead their tribe of
people out of Ur towards Canaan, following the curve of the Fertile
Crescent.
Research
by some modern scholars now think this date is too late and the
location is too far south. Cities such as Urkesh
or Akkadia or Mosul (now Urfa) have been suggested as the location
of the Semitic exodus. The book of Genesis says Aram-Naharaim
(an Aramaic
name), while classical sources suggest Assyria. Currently the period
most favoured is that of third dynasty Ur, or perhaps early Isin
or Larsa. Lagash is another possibility, towards the end of the
second dynasty.
c.1750
- 1712 BC :
Samsu-Iluna
: Son.
c.1741
- 1736 BC :
Many
city states have been revolting against Babylonian rule since the
death of Hammurabi, and many free themselves from the empire, despite
hard fighting by Samsu-Illuna. Terqa
is attacked, and Apum is sacked (1726 BC), but Rim-Sin II of Larsa
now revolts against Babylon's rule, aided by Anni of Eshnunna.
c.1732
BC :
The
Kassite peoples have been migrating into Mesopotamia, mostly being
used as farm workers by Babylon. Akkadians claiming descent from
Isin now set up their own territory in southern Mesopotamia's Sealand
region, removing it from the control of the Amorites to their north.
Two years later, in 1730 BC (or 1715 BC), Sealand defeats an invading
army of Kassites which then sets up a kingdom in the remnants of
Mari.
c.1728/27
BC :
Samsu-Illuna
sacks Apum, destroying the thriving city.
c.1722
BC :
Samsu-Iluna defeats two otherwise unknown and hostile kings, Iadikhabum
and Muti-khurshana, both of whom bear western names.
c.1712
- 1684 BC :
Abi-eshuh
/ Abieshu : Son.
c.1684
- 1647 BC :
Ammi-ditana
: Son.
Babylon
is able to regain the cities of Uruk, Isin, Lagash and Larsa from
Sealand.
c.1647
- 1626 BC :
Ammi-zaduga
/ Ammisaduqa : Son.
c.1626
- 1595 BC :
Samsu-ditana
/ Samsuditana
c.1595
BC :
The
Babylonian empire has been steadily declining following the arrival
of the Hittites in the region, and due to over-farming of the fields,
leading to increased salinisation and failing crops. The culture
of the Hittites emerges, as does that of the Hurrian empire of Mitanni.
In c.1595 BC the Hittite ruler Mursili I leads his army down the
Euphrates and sacks Babylon. The power vacuum allows the Kassites
to take over control of Babylonia.
Sealand
Kings of Babylonia (ŠEŠ-KU) / Dynasty II :
c.1732 - 1460 BC
The
second dynasty of Babylonian rulers did not actually rule in Babylon
itself, but instead held former Sumer's southern area, a region
known by the Babylonians as Sealand, which was gradually expanding
southwards due to the silting up of the mouths of the Tigris and
Euphrates. Ruled by these Akkadian people, it may have stretched
as far as the Persian Gulf and the border of Elam, across Arabia,
to the Red Sea.
Records
regarding Sealand are extremely sparse, with no dates being known
and even the lengths of rule being uncertain for some kings. Dates
here are calculated against those lengths of rule and external events.
The names are regarded as fanciful by some scholars - a vain attempt
to lead a Sumerian revival.
c.1732
- 1700 BC :
Iluma-Ilum
/ Iliman : Established the dynasty.
c.1732
BC :
Iluma-Ilum claims (falsely, it seems) to be a descendent of Damiq-Ilishu,
the last ruler of Isin. He claims the independence of Sumer from
the Babylonian empire and ultimately gains the freedom of Sumer
south of Nippur, founding the Dynasty of the Sealand. He also frees
Kish from Elamite control.
c.1730/15
BC :
An
invading Kassite army is crushed by Iluma-Ilum and retreats north
to set up a kingdom in the remnants of Mari.
c.1715
BC :
Abi-eshuh
of Babylon attempts to defeat Iluma-Ilum but he flees to the swamps
and continues to rule.
c.1700 - 1683 BC :
Itti-ili-nibi
c.1683
- 1657 BC :
Damiq-ilishu
Damiq-ilishu
loses Uruk, Isin, Lagash and Larsa to Babylon.
c.1657
- 1642 BC :
Ishkibal
c.1642
- 1618 BC :
Shushushi
c.1618
- 1592 BC :
Gulkishar
c.1592
- 1580 BC :
Gishen?
: Name questionable as the list tablet is damaged.
c.1530
- 1502 BC :
Adarakalamma
c.1502
- 1476 BC :
Ekurduanna
c.1476 - 1469 BC :
Melamkurkukka
c.1469 - 1460 BC : Ea-gâmil
c.1460
BC :
Ea-gamil is overthrown by Ulamburiash. Sealand falls to the Kassites,
and is absorbed into Babylonia (although the evidence for this is
much later and very vague).
Kassite
Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty III :
c.1595 - 1157 BC
The Kassites were another non-Semitic, non-Indo-European mountain
people just like the Amorites, and their language matches nothing
else known today. They invaded Babylonia in the eighteenth century
BC and although initially defeated, they retired to Mari from where
they eventually took over Babylonia, ruling over it and the Amorite
peoples.
In fact, the Kassites had the longest period of rule in Babylonia.
Thanks to the relative absence of information, they were long thought
to have achieved little in the way of cultural development. However,
it now appears that the kingdom made great strides in cementing
the cultural unification of southern Mesopotamia - which in their
time truly became 'Babylonia', instead of just another Mesopotamian
city state with extensive possessions - and those possessions stretched
all the way southwards to Bahrain. Egypt's Amarna archive holds
Babylonian diplomatic correspondence, which gives us much more information
about Babylonian kings than Babylonian records themselves.
Known by their neighbours as the 'kings of the land of Karduniash'
(possibly the Kassite name for Babylonia), the Kassites themselves
achieved political power but did not have a cultural impact on the
region. In some Assyrian sources, the ruler was termed 'king of
the Kassites', reflecting the dual nature of Kassite rule; holding
political power but sufficiently distinct from the rest of the population
to be regarded as a separate group.
c.1730
BC :
Gandash
: Kassite leader when they arrived in Babylonia.
c.1715
BC :
The
invading Kassite army under Gandash is crushed by Iluma-Ilum of
the Sealand Dynasty. However, Gandash does successfully conquer
Mari, and the Kassite kings reside there.
c.1595
BC :
The
economically weakened Amorite Babylonian empire is sacked by the
Hittites, and is left leaderless, allowing the Kassites to move
south from Mari and take over (although the exact date at which
this happens is unknown). A dark age period follows and lasts approximately
two centuries. At around the same time it seems that the Kassites
devastate Elam.
c.1595
- 1545 BC :
Agum
II : The first Kassite king of Babylonia.
c.1545
- ? BC :
Burnaburiash
I
Kashtiliash
III
c.1520
BC :
Elam
plunders Akkad's temples.
Ulamburiash
: Brother. Lord of the 'Sealand' from c.1460 BC.
c.1460
BC :
Sealand
falls to the Kassites, and is absorbed into Babylonia.
Agum
III
Kadashman-Harbe
I
Karaindash
?
- 1391 BC :
Kurigalzu
I : Died 1377.
Kurigalzu
I rebuilds the temple at Ur, and constructs a new capital city,
named Dur-Kurigalzu, 'fortress of Kurigalzu', in the far north of
Babylonia (modern Agar Quf).
![Dur-Kurigalzu ziggurrat](Babylon_DurKurigalzu01_full.jpg)
The
partly restored ziggurrat of Dur-Kurigalzu
1391
- 1375 BC :
Kadashman-Enlil
I : A correspondent in the Egyptian Armana
letters.
1375
- 1347 BC :
Burnaburiash
II : A correspondent in the Egyptian Armana
letters.
In
the Egyptian Armana letters, Burnaburiash claims supremacy over
the Assyrians. Whether this had ever been a fact, it is certainly
not a realistic claim by this point. Burnaburiash even marries a
daughter of the Assyrian king, Assur-Uballit I, as his main wife.
A comprehensive archive is kept at Nippur from this point.
1347
- 1345 BC :
Karahardash
: Son. m dau of the Assyrian king. Murdered.
1345
BC :
The Kassite king is happy to marry a daughter of the powerful Assyrian
king, Ashur-Uballit I, but the marriage leads to the Kassite faction
at court murdering the Babylonian king and placing Nazibugash, a
pretender, on the throne. Assur-Uballit promptly marches into Babylonia
to avenge his son-in-law. He raises Kurigalzu, a Kassite of the
royal house, to the throne.
1345
BC :
Nazibugash
: Pretender. (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
1345
- 1324 BC :
Kurigalzu
II : Raised by Ashur-Uballit I of Assyria.
1323
- 1298 BC :
Nazimaruttash
c.1320
BC :
The Kassites briefly occupy Elam.
1297
- 1280 BC :
Kadashman-Turgu
1279
- 1265 BC :
Kadashman-Enlil
II
1265
- 1255 BC :
Kudur-Enlil
1255
- 1243 BC :
Shagarakti-Shuriash
1243
- 1235 BC :
Kashtiliash
IV : Taken in chains to Assyria. The Nippur archive is
ended.
1235
- 1227 BC :
The
Kassites are conquered by Assyria and direct rule by Assyria lasts
for eight years. Kassite subject states in Canaan become vulnerable
to later attacks by the Israelites.
c.1230
BC :
The Kassites are defeated in battle by Elam. In two successive Elamite
campaigns, Nippur is taken and Isin is attacked.
1227
- 1224 BC :
Enlil-nadin-shumi
: Assyrian puppet.
1223
BC :
Kadashman-Harbe
II : Assyrian puppet.
1222
- 1217 BC :
Adad-shuma-iddina
: Assyrian puppet.
1217
BC :
A
Kassite rebellion throws off Assyrian control.
1216
- 1187 BC :
Adad-shuma-usur
1186
- 1172 BC :
Melishipak
/ Meli-Shipak
1171
- 1159 BC :
Marduk-apal-iddina
I
1158
BC :
Zababa-shuma-iddina
c.1158
- 1155 BC :
The
overthrow of the Kassites in Babylon is achieved by the Elamites.
Babylon itself falls in 1157. The Elamites control Babylonia for
three years in a short-lived empire.
1158
- 1155 BC :
Kutir-Nahhunte
: Son of Shutruk-Nahhunte of Elam and his successor there.
1157
- 1155 BC :
Enlil-nadin-ahhe
/ Enlil-Shuma-Usur : Possibly fights on against Elam.
Kings
of Babylonia / Dynasty IV (Isin Dynasty II) :
1156 - 1025 BC
The
Akkadian city state of Isin had been conquered by Babylonia (or
Karduniash, as it was known by the Kassites) around 1787 and 1763
BC. Following invasions by the Elamites, the Babylonians rallied
around the Isin nobility, which reclaimed the throne from central
Babylonia and strengthened it. The country itself slid into a general
decline, with urbanism sharply down - the number of true urban centres
perhaps only included Babylon, Isin, and Ur. The whole region, from
the Hittites in Anatolia, to Egypt, Syria and the Levant, and Assyria,
was at this time in the grip of a dark age resulting from the general
instability of the start of the century, and a new people, the Aramaeans,
were migrating into the surrounding countryside, exacerbating the
situation. A major regional drought made the situation even worse.
1156
- 1146 BC :
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu
1146
- 1132 BC :
Itti-Marduk-balatu
c.1138
BC :
After
years of raiding and plundering the country at will, the Elamites
are finally expelled from Babylonia.
1132
- 1126 BC :
Ninurta-nadin-shumi
1126
- 1103 BC :
Nebuchadnezzar
/ Nebuchadrezzar I
c.1120
BC :
Nebuchadnezzar puts an end to Elamite prosperity by sacking the
capital and kingdom. The kingdom falls and becomes part of Babylonia's
territories. Nebuchadnezzar also claims to subdue the 'land of Lullubi'
in the north.
1103
- 1100 BC :
Enlil-nadin-apli
1100
- 1082 BC :
Marduk-nadin-ahhe
1082
- 1069 BC :
Marduk-shapik-zeri
1069
- 1046 BC :
Adad-apla-iddina
1046
BC :
Marduk-ahhe-eriba
: (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
1046
- 1033 BC :
Marduk-zer-X
1033
- 1025 BC :
Nabu-shum-libur
Kassite
Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty V (Sealand Dynasty II) :
1024 - 1004 BC
A second dynasty, this time from the extreme south, managed to take
control of Babylonia, although this one was made up of Kassites.
Still in the midst of the dark age period, scribal activity was
at a very low point throughout Mesopotamia. Bureaucracy had virtually
disappeared, as had court correspondence, and indeed the entire
palace system itself in many places. It survived in Egypt, Babylonia,
and Assyria, but for that very reason, while the rest of the world
was producing new advances to cope with a new age, these three empires
became technologically backwards.
1024
- 1008 BC :
Simbar-shipak
1008
BC :
Ea-mukin-shumi
: (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
1008
- 1004 BC :
Kashu-nadi-ahhe
: (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
Kassite
Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty VI (Bazi Dynasty) :
1004 - 985 BC
As semi-nomadic groups before they settled, the Kassites were organised
in family and tribal units which were named as 'House of so-and-so'
(Akkadian Bit + the name of a person, usually an ancestor).
After they lost political control of Babylonia, the Kassites remained
there and in neighbouring areas, and maintained their organisational
houses with ancestral Kassite names. These remained the administrative
units of some areas after the disappearance of the main dynasty
of Kassite kings. The three kings of this dynasty were from a region
of Kassites which had not ruled before.
1004
- 987 BC :
Eulma
shakin-shumi
987
- 985 BC :
Ninurta-kudurri-usur
I : (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
985
BC :
Shiriqti-shuqamunu
: (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
Elamite
Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty VII :
985 - 979 BC
The Elamite rule of Babylon was a brief affair, with the city being
governed by an individual who's lineage and position is unknown.
The kingdom of Elam had been drawn into the Babylon state about
1120 BC, following the sack of Susa. Some Elamites probably emigrated
to Babylon itself and merged with the general population, sometimes
attaining high positions, although Elam itself never loses its distinct
identity. Elamite and Babylonian troops often fight side by side
against outside enemies, such as the Persians, new arrivals at this
time on the eastern borders.
985
- 979 BC : Mar-bîti-apla-us.ur
Uncertain
Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty VIII :
979 - 748 BC
The situation in Babylonia had become extremely confused by this
time, with various Kassite, Babylonian, and newly-arrived Chaldaean
and Arabian groups vying for power, as well as some individuals
who claimed distant Elamite descent. Most of those who secured the
throne achieved very little in the face of such a politically fragmented
state. Also arriving at this time were groups of Aramaeans, the
most important of them being the Gambulians and the Puqudians. They
did not seek integration into Babylonian society and mostly did
not seek political power, but their small village communities dominated
the fringes of the agricultural zone near the Tigris.
(Additional information from Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient
Near East, Martti Nissinen, Robert Kriech Ritner, & Choon
Leong Seow (Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), and from Ancient
Assyria, C H W Johns (Cambridge University Press, 2012).)
977
- 943 BC :
Nabu-mukin-apli
971
- 970 BC :
Festivals are suspended in Babylonia due to Aramaean invasions.
943
BC :
Ninurta-kudurri-usur
II : Son.
942
- c.920 BC :
Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina
: Brother. Some lists mark this as the start of Dynasty
IX.
c.920
- 900 BC :
Shamash-mudammiq
899?
- 888? BC :
Nabu-shuma-ukin
887?
- 855 BC :
Nabu-apla-iddina
mid-800s
:
The presence of a ruler by the name of Marduk-suma-iddin in the
city of Gan Dunias points to a good degree of Babylonian influence
there. Babylonia is replete with 'Marduk-' royal names during this
period, so perhaps this helps to narrow down the location of that
city within Syria. In fact, as Kar-Dunias, the city can even be
equated with Babylon itself. The standard kingship lists fails to
show him though, so perhaps he is a rival. It would also appear
that he is challenged for the throne during his reign, by one Marduk-bila-Yu'sate.
854
- 819 BC :
Marduk-zakir-shumi
I
853
BC :
Marduk-zakir-shumi calls to Assyria for support to quell a rebellion
by his younger brother. Although Shalmaneser III views him as an
equal in rank, this period sees the start of continued Assyrian
interference in Babylonian political affairs. The remaining kings
were often very weak and reigns could be short.
823
BC :
Babylonia comes to the aid of one of the princes of Assyria who
is involved in a civil war for the right of succession. With the
help of Marduk-zakir-shumi, Shamshi-Adad V gains the Assyrian throne.
![Shamshi-Adad V of Assyria](Assyria_ShamshiAddadV_01_full.jpg)
Babylon
had mixed fortunes in its relations with Assyria, but in 823 BC
it successfully supported Shamshi-Adad V's claim to the Assyrian
throne
819
- 813 BC :
Marduk-balassu-iqbi
813
- 811 BC :
Baba-aha-iddina
811
- c.800 BC :
(Five
unknown rulers)
c.800
- c.790 BC :
Ninurta-apla-X
c.790
- 780 BC :
Marduk-bel-zeri
c.780
- 769 BC :
Marduk-apla-usur
769
- 761 BC :
Eriba-Marduk
760
- 748 BC :
Nabu-shuma-ishkun
748
BC :
Mixed
Kassite/Babylonian rule of Babylonia comes to an end. The Chaldaeans
become players in Mesopotamian politics, seizing Babylon itself
in 734 BC.
Chaldaean
Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty IX (& X) :
734 - 627 BC
Babylonia's
Dynasty IX saw the replacement of the mixture of Kassite, Babylonian
and Chaldaean rulers with Chaldaeans alone. They contested regularly
with Assyria for the rule of Babylonia, and changes of king could
be very rapid. Assyria seemed to be reluctant to take over Babylonia
openly. Probably an acknowledgement that Babylonia had fundamentally
influenced Assyria's culture and religion led to a sense of respect
that prevented similar treatment to that meted out to most of Assyria's
troublesome possessions. Anyway, the extreme south was impossible
to control as it was covered with marshes in which traditional military
tactics could not be deployed. These areas provided refuge for the
Chaldaeans.
It
is from this point that Babylonian chronology can be securely dated
thanks to Claudius Ptolemy's second century AD Canon of Kings, a
collection of astronomical observations passed down by Hellenistic
Babylonian priests, as well as other sources.
(Additional
information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983).)
747
- 734 BC :
(Nabonassar)
Nabu-nasir : The earliest certain regnal date in Babylonia.
734
BC :
Perhaps
two centuries after their first arrival in the region, the Chaldaeans
have become a dominant group in southern Mesopotamia. They now occupy
Babylon, replacing the previous mixture of different peoples at
the top of the power structure.
![Babylon](Babylon_City02_full.jpg)
Whilst
Babylon was not perhaps at this time the great city it once had
been and would again be, it was still one of the biggest, most heavily-populated
centres of population in the ancient world of the early first millennium
734
- 732 BC :
Nabu-nadin-zeri
: (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
732
BC :
Nabu-shuma-ukin
II : (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
732
- 721 BC :
Nabu-mukin-zeri
/ Nadios
729
- 722 BC :
Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria rules Babylonia direct until 727
BC, and then his successor, Shalmaneser V, does the same.
722
- 710 BC :
Marduk-apla-iddina
II : Biblical Merodach-Baladan or Berodach-baladan. Usurper.
720
BC :
Assyrian king Sargon attempts to attack Elam but is defeated by
the Elamites and Babylonians near Der. It seems likely that another
attack is mounted in 713 BC, as Sargon is surprised by a rebellion
in Tabal while his attention is focussed on Elamite lands.
710
- 703 BC :
Marduk-apla-iddina II (Merodach-Baladan) is a Chaldaean prince who
usurps the throne with the aid of Syria and Philistia, and has dealings
with Hezekiah of Judah at around the same time. Sargon II of Assyria
eventually drives out the usurper and rules Babylonia direct during
the remainder of his lifetime.
With
his death, many of the former subject states rebel, especially Chaldaeans
and neighbouring groups. Amongst the rebels are listed the Hagaranu
(possibly the descendants of Hagar, the mother of Ismael), the Nabatu
(very possibly the descendants of Nebayoth, the eldest son of the
same Ismael), and the Kedarites (descendants of Ismael's second
son). According to the records, these tribes flee from Assyria into
the Arabian Desert and cannot be conquered. With the recapture of
Babylon a priority, it takes the Assyrians until 701 BC to get around
to quelling similar rebellions in Judah and the Phoenician states.
703
BC :
Marduk-zakir-shumi
II : Reigned for a few weeks. Overthrown.
703
BC :
Sennacherib retakes Babylon from Marduk-zakir-shumi, but only briefly
before Marduk-apla-iddina II (Merodach-Baladan) retakes the throne,
strengthening Chaldaean control. During his rule he also has dealings
with Hezekiah of Judah.
703
BC :
Marduk-apla-iddina
II : Regained throne. Fiercely anti-Assyrian.
703
BC :
Marduk-apla-iddina II is driven south into the marshes by Sennacherib.
The Assyrian king places a native Babylonian on the throne.
702
- 700 BC :
Bel-bini
/ Bel-ibni : Effectively an Assyrian puppet.
700
BC :
Sennacherib still has to mount another campaign into the south to
deal with Marduk-apla-idinna (whose resurgence perhaps accounts
for a Marduk-apla-idinna III in some lists). During this period
he replaces Bel-bini on the Babylonian throne with his own eldest
son.
700?
BC :
Marduk-apla-idinna
III : Probably Marduk-apla-idinna II.
699
- 694 BC :
Ashur-nadin-shumi
: Son of Sennacherib of Assyria.
694
- 691 BC :
An
Elamite military raid takes Babylon and the populace takes the opportunity
to capture Ashur-nadin-shumi himself. They hand him over to the
Elamite king and he is taken off, never to be seen again. A new
native king takes the throne in 694 BC, but he is quickly removed
by Sennacherib. Then Mushezib-Marduk seizes the throne and organises
a strong anti-Assyrian coalition made up of Chaldaeans, Babylonians,
Aramaeans and Elamites, whom he pays from the temple treasury.
694
- 693 BC :
Nergal-ushezib
: (Name not in the Georges Roux list.)
693
- 689 BC :
Mushezib-Marduk
: Chaldaean.
692/691
BC :
Khumma-Menanu of Elam king leads a coalition of states against Assyrian
king Sennacherib at the Battle of Halule on the Tigris. With him
is Mushezib-Marduk of Babylon, the minor kingdom of Ellipi (roughly
located in Luristan, to the immediate west of Elam), and the kingdom
of Anshan which seems able to be able to call on the Parsua or Parsuash
(Persians). Anshan has often - but not always - been part of Elam
itself, but it may be ruled by a subsidiary line at this time. The
location of the battle suggests a march by the allies towards the
heart of Assyrian-dominated territory. The outcome is not decisive,
and does not prevent Sennacherib from devastating Babylon itself
following a fifteen month-long siege, although it does protect Elam.
689
- 681 BC :
The siege of Babylon ends with it being sacked and looted, its population
largely deported. Sennacherib leaves the land in disarray with very
little activity taking place and few records. He rules in name but
takes no active role in Babylonia and is killed by his sons in 681
BC for the act.
680
- 669 BC :
One
of those sons, Essarhaddon of Assyria, rules Babylonia direct, rebuilding
Babylon in the 670s.
669
BC :
One
of Essarhaddon's sons, Shamash-shumi-ukin, rules Babylonia on a
semi-independent basis, but local rule returns to the Chaldaeans,
although still under Assyrian overlordship. Shamash-shumi-ukin rebels
against his brother in Assyria, but is besieged and disappears from
history, presumably killed.
669
- 649 BC :
Shamash-shumi-ukin
: Son of Esarhaddon of Assyria. Rebelled and was defeated.
652
- 649 BC :
Shamash-shumi-ukin rebels against his brother in the Assyrian kingdom.
Ashurbanipal soon besieges Babylon, bringing it back into the empire.
Rebellions in support of Babylon by the Kedarites
and Nabatu
are also put down, possibly prior to Babylon's recapture. It takes
two years of direct rule before a puppet ruler of Babylon is placed
on the throne.
647
- 627 BC :
Kandalanu
: Puppet of Assyria.
629
- 626 BC :
A
rival faction begins to take shape in the south, and in 627 BC Kandalanu
mysteriously disappears, paving the way for a full-blown revolt
by Nabopolasser in the following year. Assyrian kings (or in Sin-shumu-lishir's
case an apparent rival) quickly lose all control there. Various
cities proclaim allegiance to the different Assyrian claimants to
the throne but they are conquered one by one. The Neo-Babylonian
empire is born under the leadership of Nabopolasser's Chaldaeans.
626
BC :
Sin-shumu-lishir
: Ruled parts, including Babylon. (Not in the Georges Roux
list.)
Neo-Babylonian
Empire (Chaldaean / Aramaean) / Dynasty X (XI) :
Of The Chaldaeans
629 - 539 BC
The Chaldaean Babylonians were, once the Assyrian empire had collapsed,
the last great group of Semitic peoples. Together with Aramaean
groups, they had ruled Babylonia under Assyrian overlordship for
about a century and a half, but did not gain true power until the
Assyrians were ripe for defeat. Then they proved themselves to be
every bit as powerful as the Assyrians had been, even down to forcing
captive peoples to migrate en-masse. Unfortunately, Babylonia never
quite quashed pro-Assyrian feeling within its empire, and in 556
BC a pro-Assyrian king came to the throne, spelling disaster for
the empire.
The three main Chaldaean groups were Bit-Dakkuri between Babylon
and Nippur, Bit-Amukani between Nippur and Uruk, and Bit-Jakin in
the marshy south. While their empire was a strong one, it also faced
opposition from a resurgent Egypt in the west, various states in
Anatolia, and invasions from the north by Scythians
and Cimmerians.
The state's archives have not been preserved, so the fine detail
of Babylonian rule in the empire has been lost.
(Additional information by Jo Amdahl, from Empire of Gold: Foundations,
Jo Amdahl, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from
External Link: Encyclopaedia Iranica, and with reference
to a large number of original and secondary sources that are included
in the 'Persia and Eastwards' section of the Sources page.)
629
- 611 BC :
Nabopolasser
(Nabűaplaus.ur) : Chaldaean.
626
- 612 BC :
Nabopolasser
revolts against his weakened Assyrian overlords, a conflict which
ends with the invasion of Assyria in 616 BC and the sacking of Ninevah
in 612 BC by Babylonian, Scythian, and Median forces. Babylonia
gains many of the former Assyrian territories, including in Syria
and Phoenicia, but leaves those in the Iranian Plateau to the Medes.
![Oxus Treasure chariot](Medes_Chariot01_full.jpg)
The
Oxus Treasure contains this Persian model of a Median war chariot,
although it is only pulled by two horses rather that the customary
four
Cyaxares
of the Medes is the first to develop an organised cavalry with divisions
which can act together and in conjunction with other units. It is
this innovation that gives him the advantage over the Scythians
and breaks their hold over his land. Nabopolassar begins integrating
cavalry into his army when Cyaxares shows the king what they can
achieve (a treaty exists between the two peoples, and their armies
are influenced by one another). Nabopolassar's son, Nebuchadnezzar,
later employs a large organised force of cavalry. In his turn, Cyaxares
begins using the heavier Assyro-Babylonian-style chariots and presumably
the faster, leggier horses that pull them.
611
- 605 BC :
Necho
609
- 608 BC :
Necho
gains Tabal
in Anatolia, and the following year deposes the king of Judah. The
crown prince, Nebuchadnezzar, leads the Babylonian forces in Syria
as he inflicts a serious defeat on the Egyptians at Carchemish
in 605 BC.
604
- 562 BC :
Nebuchadnezzar
II (Nabűkudurrius.ur) : Son of Nabopolasser. Took the western
end of Assyria.
587
BC :
Nebuchadnezzar annexes many previously independent states in the
west in his quest for complete dominance of Syria-Palestine. He
subjugates Judah for its continued support of Egypt, and the Jewish
exile period begins as thousands of their number are forced to move
to Babylon. However, his siege of the Phoenician city of Tyre lasts
for thirteen years.
It
is during this period that Nebuchadnezzar rebuilds a former temple
as the Tower of Babel, carries out new construction work in the
city of Ur, and excavates a great reservoir near Sippar. He also
builds the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the 'Wonders of the
Ancient World', in order to assuage the homesickness of his bride,
Amyhia, for the mountains of Iran, where her father, the Median
king Cyaxares, lives. Their marriage had been agreed a few years
before Nebuchadnezzar ascended the throne in order to seal the alliance
between Media and Babylon (according to Berosius - or Berossus -
in his third century BC history of Babylon).
585
- 582 BC :
Babylonia
captures the kingdom of Ammon in about 585 BC, and Moab in 582 BC.
573
- 572 BC :
Babylonia
captures the city of Damas
and all of Phoenicia.
562
BC :
The succession is problematic. Three kings rule after Nebuchadnezzar
for a total of only six years, and two of them are assassinated.
Finally a man of non-royal descent, Nabonidus, is placed on the
throne. At some point Babylon may lose control of some of its outlier
regions. There is the possibility that the Lullubians
restore their formerly-independent kingship, although this depends
upon an identification with them in connection with the conquests
of Cyrus the Great of Persia.
562
- 560 BC :
Amęl
Marduk / Evil-Merodach
560
- 556 BC :
Nergalsharusur
/ Neriglissar
557
- 556 BC :
Nergalsharusur annexes Cilicia.
556
BC :
Labashi
Marduk
556
- 539 BC :
Nabonidus
/ Nabűna'id / Nabo-Naid : Pro-Assyrian. Son of king of
Harran. Sent to Karmana.
556
BC :
Cilicia has already been invaded and annexed by King Nergalsharusur,
although some sources state that Cilicia's King Appuashu resists
him. In fact, Cilician resistance to Babylonian occupation now forces
Nabonidus to re-invade Cilicia at the start of his reign, marking
it out as an urgent priority case. Despite being conquered anew,
Cilicia remains an unwilling partner in the empire.
554/3
- 552 BC :
The
Assyrian-occupied city of Hamath is the target of an attack by Nabonidus.
In 552 BC, Nabonidus moves his capital to Teima, deep in Kedarite
territory. They are a people with whom he has good relations, and
the place feels safer to him than Babylon.
546
BC :
Babylonia loses Tabal to the Persians, as they conquer much of Anatolia.
539
BC :
Nabonidus angers the Babylonians by trying to reintroduce Assyrian
culture, including placing the moon god Sin above Babylon's Marduk
in terms of importance. Perhaps because of that, resistance to Cyrus
the Great of Persia, when he enters Babylonia from the east, is
limited to just one major battle, near the confluence of the Diyala
and Tigris rivers. On 12/13 October (sources vary), Babylon is occupied
by Cyrus, who adopts an enlightened approach to his subjects, and
allows the captive Judeans to return home.
According
to the Greek writer, Berossus (author of the Babyloniaka
(The Babylonian History), now lost but quoted by later writers),
Nabonidus is granted a residency in Karmana (to the east of Persis)
as its satrap. Babylon itself now forms a satrapy in its own right.
Persian
Satraps of Babirush (Babylonia) :
Incorporating the Satraps of Arbelitis
& Sittacene
Conquered by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, the empire of Babylonia
was added to the Persian empire. Under the Persians, it was formed
into a great satrapy known as Babirush (alternatively shown as Bābiruš
- the 'š' produces an 'sh' sound). The satrapy's borders largely
followed those of the former Babylonian empire, at least at first.
As in the case of Sardis, so far as the family relations are known,
only princes of the Achaemenid family and members of the families
of the conspirators who aided Darius the Great were installed as
satraps in what was now Babirush (Babylon). This was generally the
case in all of the great satrapies. The post was not an hereditary
one, though, unlike some of the minor satrapies.
The main satrapy of Athura (former Assyria) belonged to the great
satrapy of Babylonia. Thanks to its close association with Babylonia,
the two names were used almost synonymously (certainly by Herodotus
and Strabo). Babylon's rank during the Achaemenid period (and beyond)
and the status of officials who were installed there suggests that
Babylonia was the superior great satrapy. On the occasion of the
rebellion of Megabyzus in Ebir-nāri, the satrap of Babylonia
was responsible for its suppression. This alone proves its higher
hierarchical rank, as does the fact that Alexander the Great settled
matters relating to Assyria in Babylon. It was also Strabo who reported
(accurately) that Athura consisted of (old) Assyria along with Khilakku,
Syria, and Phoenicia. Therefore Megabyzus and other holders of his
office were satraps of all of these (often with junior satraps governing
each region directly).
Available sources for the minor satrapies which were subservient
to Babirush are scanty, although one of them may have been Sittacene,
which both Curtius and Diodorus refer to as a satrapy or eparchy
(a province, now a term more usually used in the Orthodox church).
Sittacene was a region around the city of Sittace, located on the
road from Babylon to Susa, so this minor satrapy would have flanked
Babylon on its eastern side. Better attested is Arbelitis
and its chief settlement, Arbela, in which Alexander captured money
as booty after the Battle of Gaugamela. Arbela (the modern Iraqi
city of Erbil in Kurdistan) was also the capital of the district
which revolted against Darius the Great under the leadership of
Ciçantaxma of Asagarta (Sagartia). Following the rebellion's suppression,
Darius subsumed his deeds against Ciçantaxma within Media as a whole,
suggesting that the region belonged to Media at the time. This evidently
changed not very long afterwards, and no later than by the mid-fifth
century BC it was transferred to Babylonia's jurisdiction.
Arabia
around the oasis of Taymāʾ, which had belonged to the
Babylonian empire, was only added to Persian holdings during Cambyses'
Egyptian campaign of 525 BC - as Arabāya - and was, technically,
added to the great satrapy of Mudrāya (Egypt). Later Syria
seems to have been established as a satrapy in its own right under
the name of Ebimari or Ebir-nāri (Babylonian) or Abar-Nahra
(Aramaic-Persian) - 'beyond the river [Euphrates]'. Once Syria was
stripped away from Athura, thereby lessening Babylonia's own importance,
the post of Babylonian satrap was poorly attested. Where these are
known, the Old Persian names are shown first, followed by Greek
and other various interpretations. Although far from certain it
may be the case that Darius the Great instigated changes after 516
BC so that Babylonia controlled only the area from the east of the
Euphrates bend in northern Syria, to Assyria and Babylonia itself.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from the Cyropaedia & Anabasis,
Xenophon of Athens, from The Cambridge Ancient History, John
Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds), from
Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era, Daniel
T Potts, from Alexander the Great, Krzysztof Nawotka (Cambridge
Scholars Publishing, 2009), from Ancient and Modern Assyrians:
A Scientific Analysis, George V Yana (Xlibris Corporation, 2008),
and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Iranica, and the Nabonidus
Chronicle, contained within Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles,
A K Grayson (Translation, 1975 & 2000, and now available via
Livius in an improved version).)
539
- 537? BC :
?
: Babylonian satrap of Mesopotamia, Ebir-nāri,
& Phoenicia.
539
BC :
Despite
the fall of Babylon itself to the Persians, it is entirely possible
that pockets of resistance remain - or at least areas in which Persian
overlordship is tacitly acknowledged while local rule is maintained
on a semi-independent basis, at least for a time. The Chaldaeans
who had provided Babylon's last dynasty of kings may be one such
case. Although specific details are not recorded, the Book of Daniel
seems to retain a memory of this in Belshar-uzur and Darius the
Mede (the latter especially).
![Achaemenid palace decoration at Babylon](Persia_BabylonPalace01_full.jpg)
This
Achaemenid (Persian empire) palace decoration stood in the city
of Babylon and was transported to Berlin upon being rediscovered
by archaeologists in the twentieth century
fl
c.539 BC :
Belshar-uzur
/ Bel-ŝarra-Uzur : Son of Nabonidus. The Belshazzar
of the Book of Daniel.
539 BC :
Belshar-uzur is the son of Nabonidus and may legitimately claim
to be the true successor to the throne even though he holds no power
and doesn't have the resources to enforce his claim. He is apparently
killed by Cyrus the Great even though his father is allowed to live,
so he cannot be the otherwise unknown Babylonian satrap for the
first couple of years of Persian rule before being replaced by Gaubaruva.
Instead, as Cyrus allows existing offices to be retained at first,
this post is probably still filled by its Neo-Babylonian incumbent.
Darius
the Mede : 'King of the Chaldaeans' in the Book of Daniel.
fl
c.539 BC :
Darius the Mede is much harder to authenticate. Depending upon the
identification of Ahasuerus (a St James Bible translation of the
Greek and Old Persian Xerxes and Xšayārša respectively), Amyhia,
daughter of Cyaxares of Media, may possibly be his aunt. He is referred
to as the king of the Chaldaeans (but perhaps only after the fall
of Babylon's last king). His most famous act is to throw Daniel
into the lion's den, and he is apparently aged sixty-two when he
is made king over the Chaldaeans ('made' seemingly meaning that
he does not claim the kingship himself but is offered it).
However,
he is not attested anywhere outside the Old Testament. This could
be political, of course, as the Persians would be keen on stamping
their control over the entire region even while possibly tolerating
local rule in their name. Darius has been linked with several other,
historically attested, rulers, including Cyrus the Great himself,
occupier of Babylon, but the Old Testament clearly differentiates
between the two people.
A
key point to remember is that the book of Daniel is written by a
Jew who is part of the Hebrew exile, living a life of captivity
in Babylon until freed by Cyrus in 539 BC, making it a contemporary
(and very local!) account, and therefore perfectly placed to record
details which may be lost to later Greek authors. The most likely
explanation is that Cyrus permits the existence of client kingdoms
of limited duration, just as the Roman
empire does in newly conquered territories many centuries later,
but the possibility also exists that Darius the Mede is Gaubaruva,
satrap of Babirush.
![Daniel faces Darius the Mede](Israel_DanielLions01_full.jpg)
The
Old Testament's Daniel is granted an audience with the 'king of
the Chaldaeans', clearly a reference to Babylon and, possibly, its
current ruler - or an inflation of a far more minor figure in the
Persian hierarchy
537? - 522 BC :
Gaubaruva
/ Gobryas / Gobares : Persian satrap of Babirush (Mesopotamia
) & Ebir-nāri.
537? BC :
Gaubaruva is appointed as the Persian satrap of Babirush, but perhaps
only after a Babylonian has held the post for a couple of years.
He is known by a whole host of interpretations of his name, from
the Old Persian Gaubaruva or the Akkadian Gubaru, to the Greek Gobryas,
and the Latin Gobar(es). He can also be equated with the Cyaxares
of the Cyropaedia, but should not be confused with the General
Ugbaru (Old Persian) or Gobryas (Greek) who aids Cyrus the Great
in the conquest of Mesopotamia (a mistake made in the Grayson version
of the Nabonidus Chronicle). Ugbaru may in fact govern the
district or province of Gutium for a short time before dying, having
already reached an advanced age.
524/522
BC :
Gaubaruva seems to be powerful in his role as satrap of Babirush.
No subsequent satrap seems to wield quite such extensive power.
In 522 BC he is one of the seven co-conspirators who remove the
'usurper' Gaumata, from the Persian throne. Although far from certain,
it may be the case that Darius the Great instigates changes after
516 BC so that the satrap of Babirush controls only the area from
the east of the Euphrates bend in northern Syria, to Assyria and
Babirush itself.
524?
- 516 BC :
Uštani
/ Ushtanni : Satrap of Babylonia (Mesopotamia) & Ebir-nāri.
522
BC :
Nebuchadnezzar
: Claimant to the Babylonian throne. Defeated.
522 BC :
Upon the execution of the Persian usurper, Smerdis, Nebuchadnezzar
causes chaos in Babylon when he puts himself forward as a claimant
to the Babylonian throne. The new Achaemenid king, Darius, deals
with him before chasing down several other rebellions. On 13 December
he forces a crossing of the Tigris and then wins a decisive battle
on 18 December. Clearly Nebuchadnezzar has gained a sizeable following,
but Darius enters Babylon and the rebellion is crushed.
![Darius the Great of Persia](Persia_DariusI_01_full.jpg)
The
central relief of the North Stairs of the Apadana in Persepolis,
now in the Archaeological Museum in Tehran, shows Darius I (the
Great) on his royal throne
c.484
BC :
Although any records to prove it have not survived, it would seem
to be in this period, between about 490-482 BC, in which Ebir-nāri
is created a satrapy in its own right, removing it from the administration
of Babirush (Babylonia). The cause may well be the revolt which
arises shortly after a greater revolt in Egypt. In fact tablets
from Babylonia seem to show evidence of two risings by claimants
to the Babylonian throne. The first uprising is that of Bel-shimanni,
which can perhaps be dated to the high summer of 484 BC. This seems
only to last a week or two before being put down.
484?
BC :
Bel-shimanni
: 'King of Babylonia'. Rebel claimant. Presumed killed.
482 BC :
All is still not well in Babirush (Babylonia). A second uprising
is sparked when Shamash-eriba claims the city - and probably the
former empire - as his own. This uprising is more serious than the
last, enduring into the autumn of 482 BC. It is put down, probably
by one of the soon-to-be Persian grand marshals, Megabyxos.
Shamash-eriba
: 'King of Babylonia'. Rebel claimant. Presumed killed.
482 BC :
Following the uprising's suppression, Xerxes removes 'King of Babylonia'
from his own titles. The city is reduced in stature by this act,
and the city walls and sanctuaries are slighted. The gold statue
of Marduk is removed. In effect, Babirush is no longer a kingdom,
merely a province of the Persian empire.
465
- c.447 BC :
Megabyzus may hand over the satrapy of Ebir-nāri (possibly
to his son) to go and deal with the rebellion in Mudrāya. Subsequently,
the captured Egyptian prince, Inarus, is crucified along with fifty
Athenian prisoners by Amestris, the queen mother. Megabyzus had
negotiated an armistice with Inarus with promises of safe conduct
and he now feels that his honour has been compromised. He returns
to Ebir-nāri and proceeds to revolt.
As
the region's superior commander - at least until very recently -
the satrap of Babirush is responsible for the suppression of the
revolt, but the able Megabyzus routs not one but two expeditions
which are sent against him. Both commanders are wounded by him in
person (just as Inarus had been), and he himself sustains a wound,
all of which apparently satisfies honour and he is reconciled with
the Persian king.
![Babylon](Babylon_City02_full.jpg)
Babylon
was forever diminished by its roles in two major uprisings in the
fifth century BC and by its subsequent demotion in importance -
even the arrival of the Greeks did not revive its fortunes
fl c.450s BC :
Tritantaikhmes
: Son of Artabanos. Satrap of Babirush?
c.450s
BC :
Tritantaikhmes, son of Artabanos, who had been a marshal at the
time of Xerxes' Greek expedition of 480 BC, can be placed here as
satrap if his father's name should replace the Artabazos given by
Herodotus. Father's names are rarely provided by other authors,
so even this clue to the satrap's possible identity is a valuable
one.
459
BC :
Ezra, a 'scribe', leads the second body of exiled Israelites back
to Jerusalem from Babylon. He also writes the Book of Ezra, and
according to tradition collects and edits the books of the Old Testament.
fl
421 - 404? BC :
Gobryas
: Satrap of Babirush (Mesopotamia).
c.421 / 420 BC :
This Gobryas could be the same figure as one of the four commanders-in-chief
of the army of Artaxerxes II at the battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC as
noted by Xenophon. As satrap of Babirush, Gobryas is named in several
documents from the Murašű archive in Nippur which is dated to the
years 421/420 BC to 417/416 BC. He probably remains in that office
until the accession of Artaxerxes II in 404 BC - a prime time for
reorganising officials.
fl
401 - ? BC :
Roparas
: Satrap of Babirush (Mesopotamia).
c.421 / 420 BC :
Roparas is assigned the position of satrap of Babirush (according
to Yana and Cook). Nothing more appears to be said about him, but
the seeming coincidence of having two satraps with the same name
within seventy years suggests a degree of familial relationship,
probably a grandson or great nephew.
fl mid-300s BC :
Roparas
: Satrap of Babirush (Mesopotamia). Lost post to Greeks?
331 BC :
At the Battle of Gaugamela, Darius' Persian units in the centre
of the formation take heavy casualties, but the commander of one
of those divisions, Ariobarzanes, satrap of Persis, is able to leave
the battlefield with his king. Darius flees eastwards and the defence
of each province is left to its satrap. Alexander seizes Babylon
(where Xenophon lists Roparas as satrap) and Susa and, having gathered
intelligence on Persis, he soon captures that too. Most administrative
posts are retained under the Greek empire, including some of those
in Mesopotamia.
![The Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC](Persia_DariusIII_01_full.jpg)
Alexander
defeated the Persian king Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela
in Mesopotamia in 331 BC, with the victory giving him control of
all the lands to the west of Iran - the lands to the east soon followed
330 - 329 BC :
In 330 BC Suguda
becomes part of the Greek empire despite the efforts of Bessus,
self-styled 'king of Asia', to retain at least some of the Persian
territories. His claim is legal, since Bakhtrish
is traditionally commanded by the next-in-line to the throne and
he has already murdered the former holder, Darius, but Persia has
already been lost and his loose collection of eastern allies - which
includes the other two most senior officials, Barsaentes of Harahuwatish
and Satibarzanes of Haraiva - provides nothing more than a sideshow
to the main event - the fall of Achaemenid Persia.
Argead
Dynasty in Babylonia :
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's
death in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in
310 BC. Alexander's successors held no real power, being mere figureheads
for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire.
Following that latter period and during the course of several wars,
Babylonia was largely left in the hands of the Seleucid empire from
305 BC.
Babylonia was not unknown to the Greeks. Even during the Achaemenid
period many Greeks travelled here, some as traders, some as Persian
military allies and some, like Herodotus, on journeys of exploration.
There seems not to have been a Greek community in Babylon before
the Argead conquest, however. Herodotus appears to have had trouble
in finding enough information to properly fill out his Babylonian
entry (such as an account of the city's past kings). Babylonian
business documents bear this out. People they often call Greeks
in fact have Anatolian names. Nomenclature also bears this out,
as the Greeks do not know the two great rivers of Mesopotamia by
their universal regional names, Purat and Deklath, but from the
Medo-Persian corruptions
of them - Ufratush and Tigra (the modern Euphrates and Tigris).
Under the Persians, the main satrapy of Assyria had belonged to
the great satrapy of Babylonia. Thanks to its close association
with Babylonia, the two names were used almost synonymously (certainly
by Herodotus and Strabo). Babylon's rank during the Achaemenid period
(and beyond) and the status of officials who were installed there
suggests that Babylonia was the superior great satrapy. On the occasion
of the rebellion of Megabyzus in Ebir-nāri, the satrap of Babylonia
was responsible for its suppression. This alone proves its higher
hierarchical rank, as does the fact that Alexander the Great settled
matters relating to Assyria in Babylon.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from
Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus,
from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories,
Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from the Cyropaedia & Anabasis,
Xenophon of Athens, from The Cambridge Ancient History, John
Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds), from
Ancient and Modern Assyrians: A Scientific Analysis, George
V Yana (Xlibris Corporation, 2008), from Brill's Companion to
Alexander the Great, Joseph Roisman (BRILL, 2002), and from
External Links: Encyclopćdia Britannica, and Appian's
History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org, and Diodorus
of Sicily at the Library of World History (dead link), and Encyclopaedia
Iranica, and the Nabonidus Chronicle, contained within Assyrian
and Babylonian Chronicles, A K Grayson (Translation, 1975 &
2000, and now available via Livius in an improved version).)
332
- 323 BC :
Alexander
III the Great : King of Macedonia. Conquered Persia.
323 - 317 BC :
Philip
III Arrhidaeus : Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander
the Great.
317 - 310 BC :
Alexander
IV of Macedonia : Infant son of Alexander the Great and
Roxana.
332
- 328 BC :
Mazaeus
/ Mazdai : Satrap of Babylonia. Former Persian satrap of
Athura. Died.
328
- 323 BC :
Stamenes
: Satrap of Babylonia (and Mesopotamia?). Died?
323
- 321 BC :
Archon
of Pella : Greek satrap of Babylonia & Susiana. Killed
in battle.
322
- 320 BC :
Immediately
following Alexander's untimely death, Susiana is presumably governed
by Archon, who holds Babylonia in the name of the titular successors
to the empire. The First War of the Diadochi (the successors
- the generals of Alexander's army) between 322-320 BC sees civil
war break out between the generals, and Perdiccas, regent of Macedonia,
is murdered by his own generals during an invasion of Egypt. Alexander's
successor, Philip III, agrees terms with the murdering generals
and appoints them as regents.
![Map of Central Asia & Eastern Mediterranean 334-323 BC](Map_Bactria-&-India-334-324BC_full.jpg)
Shown
here is the route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns across the ancient
world
A
new agreement with Antipater in 320 BC makes him regent of the Macedonian
empire and commander of the European section. The Antigonids see
their eponymous ruler remain in charge of Lycia and Pamphylia, to
which is added Lycaonia, Syria and Phoenicia, making Antigonus commander
of the Asian section. Ptolemy retains Egypt, Lysimachus retains
Phrygia and
Thrace, while the
three murderers of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes
- are given the former Persian provinces of Babylonia, Media, and
Susiana respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former regent, receives Hellespontine
Phrygia.
319
- 315 BC :
Seleucus
: Greek satrap of Babylonia. Fled Antigonus.
319 - 315 BC :
The death of Antipater leads to the Second War of the Diadochi.
Philip III is killed by his stepmother, Olympias, in 317 BC with
her being killed by Cassander the following year. Cassander also
captures Alexander IV and Roxana and installs a governor in Athens,
subsuming its democratic system. Eumenes is defeated in Asia and
murdered by his own troops, and Seleucus is forced to flee Babylon
by Antigonus. In anger at that escape, Antigonus deposes Blitor,
satrap of Mesopotamia (showing that the offices of Babylon and Mesopotamia
have been detached from one another).
![Babylon in 3D](Babylon_City03_full.jpg)
Despite
its gradual relegation as a place of importance in the face of the
Greek preference for Seleucia, Babylon was still of huge importance
in Mesopotamia, as can be seen in this unknown artist's impression
of the city
The
result is that Cassander controls the European territories (including
Macedonia), while the Antigonids control those in Asia (Asia Minor,
centred on Lycia and extending as far as Susiana). Polyperchon remains
in control of part of the Peloponnese.
315
- 312 BC :
Antigonus
: Greek satrap of Babylonia. Surrendered Babylon.
314
- 311 BC :
The Third War of the Diadochi results because the Antigonids
have grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals, so Antigonus
is attacked by Ptolemy (of Egypt), Lysimachus (of Phrygia and Thrace),
Cassander (of Macedonia), and Seleucus (who is hoping to regain
Babylonia). The latter indeed does secure Babylon and the others
conclude peace terms with Antigonus in 311 BC. Antigonus' appointment
as satrap of Media, Nicanor, is removed from his post by Seleucus,
and it seems likely that the same happens in northern Mesopotamia.
312
- 305 BC :
Seleucus
: Greek satrap of Babylonia again. Became king (305 BC).
308 - 141 BC :
The Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC
Antigonus proclaims himself king, so the following year the other
generals do the same in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet
in his stronghold in the Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander
claims his territory. The war ends in the death of Antigonus at
the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Seleucus is now king of all Hellenic
territory from Syria eastwards, and the Seleucid empire is created.
![Battle of Ipsus](Macedonia_Ipsus01_full.jpg)
The
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars
of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided
Seleucus
founds the city of Seleucia in Mesopotamia by massively rebuilding
and expanding an existing settlement. Alternatively known as Seleucia-on-Tigris,
the city soon provides nearby Babylon with a major competitor and
the latter begins to decline and empty, leading to its eventual
abandonment. Seleucid control of the region is handled first from
Babylonia, then from Seleucia, and finally from Antioch in Syria.
141 - 126 BC :
The Parthians under the very able Mithradates I make the most of
the Seleucid civil war by taking Media in 141 BC. In the same year
Mithradates also captures Seleucia and then Uruk. Although it briefly
loses Media and Babylonia to Antiochus VII in 130-129 BC, thereafter
the Parthian empire retains its holdings in Mesopotamia (recapturing
Babylonia in 126 BC), until it eventually breaks up. It leaves behind
it a patchwork of kingdoms which remain in loose alliance with one
another for a further two hundred years. In AD 284, Sassanid Persia
makes a treaty with Rome which hands over Mesopotamia as a Roman
province.
Source
:
https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/
KingListsMiddEast/
MesopotamiaBabylon.htm